What we have argued, however, is that the concept of emergence is fundamentally at odds with a computational-level analysis because such analyses start by defining the agent’s behavior in terms of goals that are independent of the neural, physical, and historical processes that produce behavior. This does not mean that computational-level thinking cannot still be impact- ful. It is clear that Marr’s Vision has provided great benefit to cognitive science, and that computational analyses have led to advancements in many areas of cognitive sci- ence (see papers in Perception vol. 41, 2012, for review and commentary). Neverthe- less, the specific examples reviewed here demonstrate that a dynamic systems perspective provides a valuable alternative framework for cognitive science because it appreciates that the neural-behavioral system is complex, non-linear, and emergent (see also McClelland et al., 2010)