on 12-Feb-2020 (Wed)

The input representation used by BERT is able to represent a single text sentence as well as a pair of sentences (eg., [Question, Answer]) in a single sequence of tokens.

• The first token of every input sequence in BERT is the special classification token – [CLS].
• BERT: The [CLS] token is used in classification tasks as an aggregate of the entire sequence representation.
• BERT: The [CLS] token is ignored in non-classification tasks.
• BERT: For single text sentence tasks, the [CLS] token is followed by the WordPiece tokens and the separator token – [SEP].
• BERT: For sentence pair tasks, the WordPiece tokens of the two sentences are separated by a [SEP] token. This i
• For both single and pair sentence inputs in BERT, the sequence ends with the [SEP] token.

Sentence Pair Input

• BERT: For sentence pair input, a token's sentence embedding indicates Sentence A or Sentence B.
• BERT: Sentence embeddings are similar to token/word embeddings with a vocabulary of 2.
• BERT: positional embeddings indicate each token's position in the sequence.

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM E cosystems consisting of water as the main habitat are known as aquatic ecosystems. Aquatic ecosys- tems are classified based on their salt content. i) Fresh water ecosystems- The salt content of fresh bodies is very low, always less than 5 ppt (parts per thousand). E.g lakes, ponds, pools, springs, streams, and rivers ii) Marine ecosystems - the water bodies containing salt concentration equal to or above that of sea water (i.e., 35 ppt or above). E.g shallow seas and open ocean iii) Brackish water ecosystems – these water bodies have salt content in between 5 to 35 ppt. e.g. estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove swamps and forests.

The UN-REDD Programme is the United Nations collaborative initiative on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD) in developing countries. The UN-REDD Programme supports nationally-led REDD+ processes and promotes the informed and meaningful involvement of all stakeholders, including Indigenous Peoples and other forest-dependent communities, in national and international REDD+ implementation.

Winterkill Snow cover of ice on water body can effectively cut off light, plunging the waters into darkness. Hence pho- tosynthesis stops but respiration continues. Thus in shallow lakes, the oxygen get depleted. Fish die, but we won’t know it until the ice melts and we find float- ing fish. This condition is known as winterkill.

Civil Matters In civil cases, an appe-al lies to the Supreme Court from any judgement of a high court if the high court certifies— (i) that the case involves a substantial question of law of general importance; and (ii) that the question needs to be decided by the Supreme Court. Originally, only those civil cases that involved a sum of 20,000 could be appealed before the Supreme Court. But this monetary limit was removed by the 30th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1972.

Criminal Matters The Supreme Court hears appeals against the judgement in a criminal proceeding of a high court if the high court— (i) has on appeal reversed an order of acquittal of an accused person and sentenced him to death; or (ii) has taken before itself any case from any subordinate court and convicted the accused person and sentenced him to death; or (iii) certifies that the case is a fit one for appeal to the Supreme Court. In the first two cases, an appeal lies to the Supreme Court as a matter of right (ie, without any certificate of the high court).

Appeal by Special Leave The Supreme Court is authorised to grant in its discretion special leave to appeal from any judgement in any matter passed by any court or tribunal in the country (except military tribunal and court martial).

Advisory Jurisdiction The Constitution (Article 143) authorises the president to seek the opinion of the Supreme Court in the two categories of matters: (a) On any question of law or fact of public importance which has arisen or which is likely to arise. (b) On any dispute arising out of any pre-constitution treaty, agreement, covenant, engagement, sanador other similar instruments. 11 In the first case, the Supreme Court may tender or may refuse to tender its opinion to the president. But, in the second case, the Supreme Court ‘must’ tender its opinion to the president. In both the cases, the opinion expressed by the Supreme Court is only advisory and not a judicial pronouncement. Hence, it is not binding on the president; he may follow or may not follow the

As a Court of Record, the Supreme Court has two powers: (a) The judgements, proceedings and acts of the Supreme Court are recorded for perpetual memory and testimony. These records are admitted to be of evidentiary value and cannot be questioned when produced before any court. They are recognised as legal precedents and legal references. (b) It has power to punish for contempt of court, either with simple imprisonment for a term up to six months or with fine up to 2,000 or with both. In 1991

Criminal contempt means the publication of any matter or doing an act which—(i) scandalises or lowers the authority of a court; or (ii) prejudices or interferes with the due course of a judicial proceeding; or (iii) interferes or obstructs the administration of justice in any other manner. However, innocent publication and distribution of some matter, fair and accurate report of judicial proceedings, fair and reasonable criticism of judicial acts and comment on the administrative side of the judiciary do not amount to contempt of court.

Power of Judicial Review Judicial review is the power of the Supreme Court to examine the constitutionality of legislative enactments and executive orders of both the Central and state governments. On examination, if they are found to be violative of the Constitution (ultra-vires), they can be declared as illegal, unconstitutional and invalid (null and void) by the Supreme Court. Consequently, they cannot be enforced by the Government

Supreme Court has numerous other powers: (a) It decides the disputes regarding the election of the president and the vice- president. In this regard, it has the original, exclusive and final authority. (b) It enquires into the conduct and behaviour of the chairman and members of the Union Public Service Commission on a reference made by the president. If it finds them guilty of misbehaviour, it can recommend to the president for their removal. The advice tendered by the Supreme Court in this regard is binding on the President.

National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR).

1. The NCPOR has established a high-altitude research station named ‘Himansh’ in Himalaya.
2. NCPOR functions under the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES).

Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a farming system that can prevent losses of arable land while regenerating degraded lands. It promotes maintenance of a permanent soil cover, minimum soil disturbance, and diversification of plant species. It enhances biodiversity and natural biological processes above and below the ground surface, which contribute to increased water and nutrient use efficiency and to improved and sustained crop production.

CA principles are universally applicable to all agricultural landscapes and land uses with locally adapted practices. Soil interventions such as mechanical soil disturbance are reduced to an absolute minimum or avoided, and external inputs such as agrochemicals and plant nutrients of mineral or organic origin are applied optimally and in ways and quantities that do not interfere with, or disrupt, the biological processes.

Complemented by other known good practices, including the use of quality seeds, and integrated pest, nutrient, weed and water management, etc., CA is a base for sustainable agricultural production intensification. It opens increased options for integration of production sectors, such as crop-livestock integration and the integration of trees and pastures into agricultural landscapes.

Most of the world is now divided into regional FTAs, including the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) for North America, the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR for its Spanish initials) for South America, the EU, the Eurasian Economic Union (Russia and neighbours), the African Continental Free Trade Agreement (AfCFTA), the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) FTA in West Asia, and now the biggest of them all, RCEP.

Developed by the European Space Agency (ESA), LESA is a pyramid-like structure whose purpose is to rescue an astronaut should he or she suffer an injury on the lunar surface.

LESA can be operated by a single astronaut to rescue a fallen colleague. It enables an astronaut to lift their crewmate onto a mobile stretcher in less than 10 minutes, before carrying them to the safety of a nearby pressurised lander.

Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) is released by

• 1. a) Niti Aayog

The Enforcement and Monitoring Guidelines for Sand Mining 2020 released by the Ministry include directions to states to carry out river audits, put detailed survey reports of all mining areas online and in the public domain, conduct replenishment studies of river beds, constantly monitor mining with drones, aerial surveys, ground surveys and set up dedicated task forces at district levels.

The guidelines also push for online sales and purchase of sand and other riverbed materials to make the process transparent. They propose night surveillance of mining activity through night-vision drones.

While the MoEF has already put in place the Sustainable Sand Management Guidelines 2016, which focus on the management of sand mining in India, officials say that there is an urgent need to have guidelines for effective enforcement of regulatory provisions and their monitoring.

The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 has empowered state governments to make rules to prevent illegal mining, transportation and storage of minerals. “But in the recent past, it has been observed that there was a large number of illegal mining cases in the country.

The International Court of Justice is composed of 15 judges elected to nine-year terms of office by the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council. These organs vote simultaneously but separately. In order to be elected, a candidate must receive an absolute majority of the votes in both bodies. In order to ensure a measure of continuity, one third of the Court is elected every three years. Judges are eligible for re-election.

Who is a star campaigner?

A recognised political party can have 40 star campaigners and an unrecognised (but registered) political party can have 20. The list of star campaigners has to be communicated to the Chief Electoral Officer and Election Commission within a week from the date of notification of an election.

The expenditure incurred on campaigning by such notified star campaigners is exempt from being added to the election expenditure of a candidate. However, this only applies when a star campaigner limits herself to a general campaign for the political party she represents.

The Ganges river dolphin is primarily found in the Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers and their tributaries in Bangladesh, India and Nepal. The Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary (VGDS), from Sultanganj to Kahalganj on the Ganga in Bihar is the only dolphin sanctuary in the country.

The State of World Population 2019 report is released by the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA).

The NIA Act was enacted in the aftermath of the Mumbai terrorist attacks of 2008. A decade later, the Act was amended with the objective of speedy investigation and prosecution of certain offences, including those committed outside India.

The 2019 amendment in the law focussed on three main areas.

OFFENCES OUTSIDE INDIA: The original Act allowed NIA to investigate and prosecute offences within India. The amended Act empowered the agency to investigate offences committed outside India, subject to international treaties and domestic laws of other countries.

The National Anti-Profiteering Authority (NAA) has been constituted under Section 171 of the Central Goods and Services Tax Act, 2017.

The Authority’s main function is to ensure that traders are not realizing unfair profit by charging high price from consumers in the name of GST.

The Authority’s core function is to ensure that the benefits of the reduction is GST rates on goods and services made by GST Council and proportional change in the Input tax credit passed on to the ultimate consumers and recipient respectively by way of reduction in the prices by the suppliers.

The National Anti-Profiteering Authority shall be headed by a senior officer of the level of a Secretary to the Government of India and shall have four technical members from the Centre and/or the States.

Establishment Of SEBI

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The Securities and Exchange Board of India was established on April 12, 1992 in accordance with the provisions of the Securities and Exchange Board of India Act, 1992.

Preamble

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The Preamble of the Securities and Exchange Board of India describes the basic functions of the Securities and Exchange Board of India as "...to protect the interests of investors in securities and to promote the development of, and to regulate the securities market and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto"

Pakistan has urged the U.S. to support its bid to exit from the grey list of the FATF ahead of a key meeting of the international terror financing watchdog in Beijing, in which it will scrutinise Islamabad’s efforts to adopt stricter laws against terror financing and money laundering.

The FATF in October decided to keep Pakistan on its ‘Grey’ list for failure to curb funnelling of funds to terror groups LeT, JeM and others. If not removed off the list by April, Pakistan may move to a blacklist of countries that face severe economic sanctions, such as Iran.

Strait of Hormuz, also called Strait of Ormuz, channel linking the Persian Gulf (west) with the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Sea (southeast). The strait is 35 to 60 miles (55 to 95 km) wide and separates Iran (north) from the Arabian Peninsula (south). It contains the islands of Qeshm (Qishm), Hormuz, and Hengām (Henjām) and is of great strategic and economic importance, especially as oil tankers collecting from various ports on the Persian Gulf must pass through the strait.

The Supreme Court’s jurisdiction and powers with respect to matters in the Union list can be enlarged by the Parliament. Further, its jurisdiction and powers with respect to other matters can be enlarged by a special agreement of the Centre and the states.

Constitution itself confers the power of judicial review on the judiciary (both the Supreme Court as well as High Courts). Further, the Supreme Court has declared the power of judicial review as a basic feature of the Constitution or an element of the basic structure of the Constitution. Hence, the power of judicial review cannot be curtailed or excluded even by a constitutional amendment.

Judicial review is the power of the judiciary to examine the constitutionality of legislative enactments and executive orders of both the Central and State governments.

“The founding fathers very wisely, therefore, incorporated in the Constitution itself the provisions of judicial review so as to maintain the balance of federalism, to protect the Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Freedoms guaranteed to the citizens and to afford a useful weapon for availability, availment and enjoyment of equality, liberty and Fundamental Freedoms and to help to create a healthy nationalism. The function of judicial review is a part of the constitutional interpretation itself. It adjusts the Constitution to meet new conditions and needs of the time”.

Article 13 declares that all laws that are inconsistent with or in derogation of the Fundamental Rights shall be null and void. 2. Article 32 guarantees the right to move the Supreme Court for the enforcement of the Fundamental Rights and empowers the Supreme Court to issue directions or orders or writs for that purpose. 3. Article 131 provides for the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in centre–state and inter-state disputes.

SCOPE OF JUDICIAL REVIEW The constitutional validity of a legislative enactment or an executive order can be challenged in the Supreme Court or in the High Courts on the following three grounds. (a) it infringes the Fundamental Rights (Part III), (b) it is outside the competence of the authority which has framed it, and (c) it is repugnant to the constitutional provisions.

Judicial activism is a way of exercising judicial power that motivates judges to depart from normally practised strict adherence to judicial precedent in favour of progressive and new social policies

We introduce a neural reading comprehension model that integrates external commonsense knowledge, encoded as a key-value memory, in a cloze-style setting. Instead of relying only on document-to-question interaction or discrete features as in prior work, our model attends to relevant external knowledge and combines this knowledge with the context representation before inferring the answer. This allows the model to attract and imply knowledge from an external knowledge source that is not explicitly stated in the text, but that is relevant for inferring the answer. Our model improves results over a very strong baseline on a hard Common Nouns dataset, making it a strong competitor of much more complex models. By including knowledge explicitly, our model can also provide evidence about the background knowledge used in the RC process.

TransE, or Translating Embeddings for Modeling Multi-relational Data , lets us embed the contents of a knowledge graph by assigning vectors to nodes and edge types (a.k.a. predicates) and, for each subject-predicate-object triple, minimizing the distance between the object vector and the translation of the subject vector along the predicate vector. It’s an appealing algorithm for embedding multi-relational data due to its simplicity, efficiency, and quality. However, it can sometimes behave in mysterious and counter-intuitive ways.

To try to isolate and unravel some of these issues, I ran TransE in two dimensions for several small graphs. The advantage of this approach is that we can visualize and animate the whole graph during training to gain intuition for how TransE works. I also plotted the predicate vectors separately to give us a good view of how they change over time.

Το ατοπικό (αλλεργικό) άσθμα, 2. Το επαγγελματικό άσθμα (πολλές μορφές) και 3. Η αλλεργική βρογχοπνευμονική ασπεργίλλωση (βρογχικός αποικισμός από μικροοργανισμούς Aspergilli που ακολουθείται από την ανάπτυξη αντισωμάτων ανοσοσφαιρίνης E [IgE])

Design by contract is also known as contract programming.

Design by contract is an approach for designing software.

Design by contract prescribes that software designers should define formal, precise and verifiable interface specifications for software components.

Design by contract specifications extend the ordinary definition of abstract data types with preconditions, postconditions and invariants.

The DbC approach assumes all client components that invoke an operation on a server component will meet the preconditions specified as required for that operation: Offensive Programming

Where this assumption is considered too risky (as in multi-channel or distributed computing) the inverse approach is taken, meaning that the server component tests that all relevant preconditions hold true (before, or while, processing the client component's request) and replies with a suitable error message if not: Defensive Programming

Αναγνωρίζονται τρείς τύποι εξωγενούς άσθματος: 1. Το [...] άσθμα, 2. Το ε [...] (πολλές μορφές) και 3. Η [...] (βρογχικός αποικισμός από μικροοργανισμούς Aspergilli που ακολουθείται από την ανάπτυξη αντισωμάτων ανοσοσφαιρίνης E [IgE]).

BERT: For sentence pair input, a token's sentence embedding indicates Sentence A or Sentence B.

BERT: Sentence embeddings are similar to token/word embeddings with a vocabulary of 2.

BERT: positional embeddings indicate each token's position in the sequence.

Ο κοινός παρονομαστής που υπογραμμίζεται σε όλες τις μορφές του άσθματος είναι η [...] σε διάφορα ερεθίσματα

Statics deals with the analysis of stationary systems—that is, those in which time is not a factor—and dynamics deals with systems that change with time.

Wireframes help to: Connect the site’s information architecture to its visual design by showing paths between pages

Wireframes help to: Clarify consistent ways for displaying particular types of information on the user interface

Wireframes help to: Determine intended functionality in the interface

Ο κοινός παρονομαστής που υπογραμμίζεται σε όλες τις μορφές του άσθματος είναι η βρογχική υπεραντιδραστικότητα σε διάφορα ερεθίσματα.

As shown in Fig. 1.1, dynamics is also made up of two major disciplines, first recognized as separate entities by Euler in 1765 [2]:

The investigation of the motion of a rigid body may be conveniently separated into two parts, the one, geometrical, and the other mechanical. In the first part, the transference of the body from a given position to any other position must be investigated without respect to the causes of the motion, and must be represented by analytical formulae, which will define the position of each point of the body. This investigation will therefore be referable solely to geometry, or rather to stereotomy [the art of stonecutting, now referred to as descriptive geometry]. It is clear that by the separation of this part of the question from the other, which belongs properly to Mechanics, the determination of the motion from dynamical principles will be made much easier than if the two parts were undertaken conjointly.

(...)

It should be carefully noted in the previous quotation that Euler based his separation of dynamics into kinematics and kinetics on the assumption that they deal with rigid bodies. It is this very important assumption that allows the two to be treated separately. For flexible bodies, the shapes of the bodies themselves, and therefore their motions, depend on the forces exerted on them. In this situation, the study of force and motion must take place simultaneously, thus significantly increasing the complexity of the analysis.

Fortunately, although all real machine parts are flexible to some degree, machines are usually designed from relatively rigid materials, keeping part deflections to a minimum. Therefore, it is common practice to assume that deflections are negligible and parts are rigid while analyzing a machine’s kinematic performance and then, during dynamic analysis when loads are sought, to design the parts so that the assumption is justified.

Reuleaux defines a machine as a “combination of resistant bodies so arranged that by their means the mechanical forces of nature can be compelled to do work accompanied by certain determinate motions.” He also defines a mechanism as an “assemblage of resistant bodies, connected by movable joints, to form a closed kinematic chain with one link fixed and having the purpose of transforming motion.”

Some light can be shed on these definitions by contrasting them with the term structure. A structure is also a combination of resistant (rigid) bodies connected by joints, but the purpose of a structure (such as a truss) is not to do work or to transform motion, but to be rigid. A truss can perhaps be moved from place to place and is movable in this sense of the word; however, it has no internal mobility. A structure has no relative motions between its various links, whereas both machines and mechanisms do. Indeed, the whole purpose of a machine or mechanism is to utilize these relative internal motions in transmitting power or transforming motion.

A machine is an arrangement of parts for doing work, a device for applying power or changing the direction of motion. It differs from a mechanism in its purpose. In a machine, terms such as force, torque, work, and power describe the predominant concepts. In a mechanism, though it may transmit power or force, the predominant idea in the mind of the designer is one of achieving a desired motion. There is a direct analogy between the terms structure, mechanism, and machine and the branches of mechanics illustrated in Fig. 1.1. The term “structure” is to statics as the term “mechanism” is to kinematics and as the term “machine” is to kinetics.

We use the word link to designate a machine part or a component of a mechanism. As discussed in the previous section, a link is assumed to be completely rigid. Machine components that do not fit this assumption of rigidity, such as springs, usually have no effect on the kinematics of a device but do play a role in supplying forces. Such parts or components are not called links; they are usually ignored during kinematic analysis, and their force effects are introduced during force analysis (see the analysis of buckling in Secs. 11.14–11.18). Sometimes, as with a belt or chain, a machine part may possess one-way rigidity; such a body can be considered a link when in tension but not under compression.

The connections, the joints between the links, are called kinematic pairs (or simply pairs), because each joint consists of a pair of mating surfaces, two elements, one mating surface or element being a part of each of the joined links. Thus, we can also define a link as the rigid connection between two or more joint elements.

Le processus vaginal est une évagination du péritoine présente chez tous les fœtus et s'oblitérant habituellement en fin de grossesse.

Il porte le nom de canal de Nück chez la fille et de canal péritonéovaginal chez le garçon

Hernie inguinale

On peut la réduire sans forcer, sinon on peut la laisser en place en attendant la chirurgie

Hernie inguinale

Prise en charge

Le traitement est toujours chirurgical, dans un court délai après le diagnostic, surtout en présence d'une hernie de l'ovaire.
L'objectif principal est de prévenir un étranglement, source d'ischémie intestinale et gonadique chez l'enfant

IFC—a sister organization of the World Bank and member of the World Bank Group—is the largest global development institution focused exclusively on the private sector in developing countries. The Bank Group has set two goals for the world to achieve by 2030: end extreme poverty and promote shared prosperity in every country.

The IFC is owned and governed by its member countries, but has its own executive leadership and staff that conduct its normal business operations.

It is a corporation whose shareholders are member governments that provide paid-in capital and which have the right to vote on its matters.

Hydrocèle, kyste du cordon

Diagnostic

Le canal péritonéovaginal est fin, ne permettant que le passage de liquide péritonéal.

Le diagnostic est porté devant une tuméfaction scrotale englobant le testicule, ou au-dessus et indépendante du testicule (kyste du cordon), lisse, parfois bleutée, molle, indolore, plus ou moins réductible.
La transillumination positive signe le caractère liquidien et donc le diagnostic.
Leur volume est variable le plus souvent, signant le caractère communicant avec le péritoine

Hydrocèle

La régression spontanée est fréquente avant l'âge de 3 ans.
Une intervention chirurgicale est programmée si l'anomalie persiste au-delà de l'âge de 3 ans

Testicule non descendu

C'est la plus fréquente des malformations congénitales de l'appareil génital du garçon

Après la naissance, un testicule qui n'est pas descendu :

• Peut migrer spontanément dans le scrotum jusqu'à 4–6 mois
• Ne peut plus migrer ensuite : ainsi 1 à 2 % des garçons ont un testicule non descendu congénital, plus souvent unilatéral (70 %) que bilatéral

Un piège : le testicule oscillant.

C'est un testicule qui, sous l'effet de la contraction du crémaster, remonte dans la région inguinale mais s'abaisse lorsque l'enfant est bien détendu.
Ce phénomène est surtout observé après l'âge de 6 mois ; il peut parfois durer jusqu'à la puberté.
Aucun traitement n'est justifié

Testicule non descendu

En l'absence de correction spontanée avant l'âge de 6 mois, le patient sera adressé à un chirurgien pédiatre pour une intervention précoce (dans l'idéal entre 6 et 12 mois).
La position des testicules doit être surveillée tout au long de la croissance pour ne pas méconnaître l'apparition d'une forme acquise

Pour bien comprendre

Le prépuce des nouveau-nés n'est pas rétractable pour deux raisons souvent associées :

• Des adhérences entre la surface du gland et la face interne du prépuce
• Un phimosis ou sténose de l'orifice préputial

Les infections préputiales (posthite ou balanoposthite si le gland est également concerné) sont très fréquentes.

Elles correspondent cliniquement à une inflammation soudaine du prépuce qui devient rouge, œdématié, douloureux.

Le traitement est simple : bains pluriquotidiens d'eau tiède additionnée d'antiseptique

Le paraphimosis est une urgence.

• C'est un accident souvent secondaire à un décallotage forcé à la suite duquel le prépuce n'a pu être remis en place.
• L'aspect est caractéristique avec un prépuce œdémateux rétracté en arrière du gland.
• Le traitement est urgent et consiste à repositionner le prépuce sur le gland par compression manuelle

Le phimosis acquis, ou lichen scléro-atrophique, est une transformation scléreuse du prépuce. Le prépuce était rétractable et ne l'est plus. Il existe un anneau blanchâtre sur l'orifice du prépuce

Prise en charge du phimosis

• En cas de phimosis congénital bien toléré, l'évolution naturelle du prépuce permettra dans la grande majorité des cas une évolution favorable.
  Un traitement pourra être envisagé si l'anomalie persiste à partir de 7–8 ans :
  • En première intention : corticothérapie locale par application uni- ou biquotidienne d'un dermocorticoïde sur l'anneau de rétrécissement durant 6 à 8 semaines (70 % de succès)
  • En cas d'échec : chirurgie par plastie du prépuce ou circoncision.
    
    
• En cas de phimosis compliqué (infections préputiales répétées, lichen scléro-atrophique, ou après réduction d'un paraphimosis), le traitement est indiqué quel que soit l'âge.

As a result of the assumption of rigidity, many of the intricate details of the actual part shapes are unimportant when studying the kinematics of a machine or mechanism. For this reason, it is common practice to draw highly simplified schematic diagrams that contain important features of the shape of each link, such as the relative locations of joint elements, but that completely subdue the real geometry of the manufactured part. The slider-crank linkage of the internal combustion engine, for example, can be simplified for purposes of analysis to the schematic diagram illustrated later in Fig. 1.3b. Such simplified schematics are a great help since they eliminate confusing factors that do not affect the analysis; such diagrams are used extensively throughout this text. However, these schematics also have the drawback of bearing little resemblance to physical hardware. As a result they may give the impression that they represent only academic constructs rather than real machinery. We should continually bear in mind that these simplified diagrams are intended to carry only the minimum necessary information so as not to confuse the issue with unimportant detail (for kinematic purposes) or complexity of the true machine parts.

When several links are connected together by joints, they are said to form a kinematic chain. Links containing only two joint elements are called binary links, those having three joint elements are called ternary links, those having four joint elements are called quaternary links, and so on. If every link in a chain is connected to at least two other links, the chain forms one or more closed loops and is called a closed kinematic chain; if not, the chain is referred to as open. If a chain consists entirely of binary links, it is a simple-closed chain. Compound-closed chains, however, include other than binary links and thus form more than a single closed loop.

Entre les âges de 6 et 8 ans, 10 à 15 % des enfants présentent des fuites urinaires diurnes ou nocturnes.

L'acquisition du contrôle mictionnel par l'enfant est un phénomène physiologique de maturation progressive de la vessie et des commandes nerveuses du bas appareil urinaire.
Comme l'acquisition de la marche, celle-ci a une chronologie variable et se fait généralement entre les âges de 18 mois et 3 ans

Le diagnostic d'un trouble mictionnel est clinique et repose essentiellement sur l'interrogatoire et l'examen physique.

Dans l'immense majorité des cas, ces troubles sont fonctionnels en relation avec une perturbation de l'acquisition du contrôle mictionnel et les mauvaises habitudes mictionnelles liées aux conditions d'accès aux toilettes scolaires

• Examen neurologique complet (motricité des membres inférieurs et sensibilité périnéale) et recherche de stigmate cutané au niveau de la région dorsolombaire (lipome, angiome, « touffe » de poils) hautement suspect d'une maladie médullaire congénitale sous-jacente
• Examen neuro-orthopédique (pied creux, inégalité de longueur des membres inférieurs, scoliose, troubles trophiques).

Au terme cette enquête clinique, une bandelette urinaire est réalisée pour exclure une infection

• Aucun examen complémentaire n'est nécessaire pour des fuites d'urines isolées sans dysurie objective.
• L'échographie rénale et vésicale avec étude du résidu post-mictionnel est réservée aux fuites non isolées, ou résistant au traitement d'épreuve
• D'autres examens pourront être proposés après avis spécialisé

Dysfonction du bas appareil urinaire diurne de l'enfant

L'appellation « dysfonction du bas appareil urinaire diurne » (Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms), ou troubles urinaires du bas appareil (TUBA), est le terme à utiliser pour les problèmes d'incontinence fonctionnelle chez l'enfant.

• La dysfonction du bas appareil urinaire représente l'étiologie la plus fréquente et regroupe des situations variées.
• Ce trouble peut être réparti en deux groupes, les anomalies de la phase de remplissage et celles de la phase mictionnelle

Anomalies de la phase de remplissage

• Une contraction désinhibée du détrusor primitive pendant le remplissage peut augmenter la pression vésicale au-delà de la pression de clôture sphinctérienne et provoquer la fuite urinaire.
• La persistance d'une hyperactivité détrusorienne au-delà de l'âge de 5 ans (anciennement dénommée « vessie hyperactive » ou « instabilité vésicale ») est une cause fréquente de fuites urinaires diurnes et éventuellement nocturnes, d'urgenturie et de pollakiurie due à une immaturité vésicale

TUBA - Anomalie de la phase de remplissage

• Le traitement repose sur la régularisation des habitudes hydriques et mictionnelles (apports hydriques repartis sur l'ensemble de la journée, lutte contre la constipation, mictions régulières toutes les 3 heures)
• Une amélioration des postures mictionnelles (bonne position sur les toilettes, vêtements baissés ne comprimant pas les organes génitaux et permettant l'écart des jambes)
• Parfois l'utilisation des anticholinergiques per os

TUBA - Anomalies de la phase de vidange

• La dyssynergie vésicosphinctérienne est caractérisée par l'absence de relâchement sphinctérien au moment de la miction.
• Cette hypertonie sphinctérienne est due à de mauvaises habitudes mictionnelles mais peut également apparaître dans l'évolution d'une immaturité vésicale (contraction excessive du sphincter pour éviter les fuites)

TUBA - Dys-synergie vésico-sphinctérienne

• Ce défaut de relâchement périnéal lors de la miction favorise l'apparition d'un résidu postmictionnel.
• Sa persistance peut aboutir à une grande vessie rétentionniste à mictions rares par hypocontractilité détrusorienne. Le traitement repose sur des mesures de rééducation.
• Un traitement anticholinergique est contre-indiqué car il aggraverait le résidu postmictionnel

Recalling Reuleaux’s definition of a mechanism, we see that it is necessary to have a closed kinematic chain with one link fixed. When we say that one link is fixed, we mean that it is chosen as the frame of reference for all other links; that is, the motions of all points on the links of the mechanism are measured with respect to the fixed link. This link, in a practical machine, usually takes the form of a stationary platform or base (or a housing rigidly attached to such a base) and is commonly referred to as the ground, frame, or base link. The question of whether this reference frame is truly stationary (in the sense of being an inertial reference frame) is immaterial in the study of kinematics, but becomes important in the investigation of kinetics, where forces are considered. In either case, once a frame link is designated (and other conditions are met), the kinematic chain becomes a mechanism and, as the driver is moved through various positions, all other links have well-defined motions with respect to the chosen frame of reference. We use the term kinematic chain to specify a particular arrangement of links and joints when it is not clear which link is to be treated as the frame. When the frame link is specified, the kinematic chain is called a mechanism.

TUBA

Complications

La dysfonction du bas appareil urinaire diurne est souvent associée à des troubles ano-rectaux (constipation, douleur défécatoire, encoprésie).

Elle peut être à l'origine de complications urologiques parfois sévères :

• Vessie de lutte (trabéculations et/ou diverticules de vessie)
• Reflux vésico-urétéral
• Insuffisance rénale dans les formes les plus graves

two candidate modelling approaches: (1) a parallel-region (PR) approach, splitting the pandemic into non-interacting epidemics occurring in spatially disjoint regions; and (2) a meta-region (MR) approach, treating the country as a single meta-population with long-range contact rates informed by census data on commuting

Model discrimination is performed through posterior mean deviance statistics alongside more practical considerations

the use of sequential Monte Carlo (SMC) algorithms to carry out real-time analyses is investigated as an alternative to MCMC

The PR approach provides a better and more timely fit to the epidemic data. Estimates of pandemic quantities of interest are consistent across approaches and, in the PR approach, across regions (e.g. R 0 is consistently estimated to be 1.76–1.80, dropping by 43–50% during an over-summer school holiday)

Limitations: The PR model lacks the predictive power to forecast the spread of infection in the early stages of a pandemic, whereas the MR model may be limited by its dependence on commuting data to describe transmission routes. As demand for resources increases in a severe pandemic, data from general practices and on hospitalisations may become unreliable or biased. The SMC algorithm developed is semi-automated; therefore, some statistical literacy is required to achieve optimal performance.

(...) in addition to the distances between successive joints, the nature of the joints themselves and the relative motions they permit are essential in determining the kinematics of a mechanism.

After the 2009 experience, two main issues were left unresolved. The first is the development of a spatial characterisation of the epidemic. This would need to be carried out at a geographical level fine enough to ensure homogeneous epidemic activity within each geographical unit, yet coarse enough to guarantee enough available data to ensure that each unit has a sufficiently informative sample size. The second issue is the need to accommodate the greater wealth of epidemic surveillance data supposedly available in future pandemics

Implantation ectopique d'uretère chez la fille

• Dans le cadre d'une duplication de la voie urinaire, l'uretère du pyélon supérieur peut s'implanter en dehors de la vessie et court-circuiter le système sphinctérien.
• L'abouchement se fait soit dans la partie terminale de l'urètre, soit dans le vagin, soit dans la vulve.
• Ceci est responsable de fuites d'urines permanentes, mais entrecoupées de mictions normales, et de vulvovaginites à répétition

Valves de l'urètre postérieur chez le garçon

• Il s'agit d'une pathologie qui correspond à la persistance d'un (ou plusieurs) repli muqueux urétrogénital au-dessous du veru montanum.
• Ces valves réalisent un obstacle urétral à l'écoulement de l'urine.
• Suivant le degré d'obstruction, elles peuvent entraîner l'apparition d'une vessie de lutte et une dégradation de la fonction rénale

Causes neurologiques

• Le diagnostic de vessie neurologique doit systématiquement être évoqué lorsque la situation et l'évolution clinique ne correspondent pas à l'hypothèse étiologique proposée et que les troubles persistent malgré une prise en charge thérapeutique adaptée.
• Ainsi, devant tout trouble mictionnel, il faut rechercher systématiquement une anomalie médullaire congénitale occulte

Points clés sur l'énurésie

• Il s'agit d'une fuite involontaire d'urine pendant le sommeil survenant chez un enfant âgé d'au moins 5 ans.
  L'énurésie est dite primaire si l'enfant n'a jamais eu de nuit sèche sur une période d'au moins 6 mois.

• L'énurésie primaire est dite isolée ou monosymptomatique s'il n'existe aucun autre symptôme associé, en particulier diurne

Environ 10 % des enfants énurétiques ont un trouble avec déficit d'attention et hyperactivité (TDAH)

Principes de prise en charge

On distingue trois formes principales d'énurésie :

• Celles liées à un trouble de l'architecture du sommeil
  • Pouvant répondre favorablement aux thérapies de conditionnement par alarme

• Celles liées à une immaturité des régulations hormonales centrales (inversion du cycle nycthémérale de la sécrétion d'hormone antidiurétique)
  • Sensibles à la réduction des apports hydriques et à la desmopressine

• Celles qui s'intègrent dans un dysfonctionnement diurne et nocturne
  • Pouvant répondre favorablement à une régularisation des habitudes hydriques et mictionnelles (arrêt des boissons après 19 h, miction systématique avant le coucher, accès facile aux toilettes la nuit aidé par une lampe) et un traitement anticholinergique.

We have advanced the state of the art by:

1. Developing transmission models that account for spatial heterogeneity in the spread of infection.
2. Improving the efficiency with which the estimation and prediction of an epidemic can be carried out, through the development of a SMC algorithm that will greatly reduce the computational burden for routine data analysis as part of a programme of pandemic surveillance.
3. Facilitating the ability of the public health community to provide timely online inference to policymakers through the provision of software to implement both of the above. The software has been adapted for the anticipated suite of epidemic data, and key PHE scientists are engaged with ongoing training in its use. The computing code (and any related documentation) for the MCMC and SMC implementations of the real-time model are stored in open online repositories.

The PR approach is found to be parsimonious, yet sufficiently flexible to capture the underlying dynamics. It is also ‘non-parametric’, in the sense that the parameters representing the epidemic growth and initial seeding of infectiousness in each region are estimated without being subject to any parametric assumption. The assumed lack of relation between these parameters means that the spread of infection between regions cannot be forecast, and significant epidemic activity has to be observed in all regions to enable estimation of the epidemic burden.

The MR model incorporates spatial heterogeneity in transmission, arising from the interaction between regional populations, through commuting flows. This gives the MR model greater power to predict the spatial spread of influenza, enabling the prediction of which will be the next region to experience widespread infection. Early in a pandemic, therefore, the MR approach is more useful in a predictive modelling setting.

One variant of the MR model investigated here involved the stratification of the population within each region into commuters and non-commuters. This has the effect of assuming that each region contains a fixed subpopulation of individuals who commute daily. This formulation yields no consistent improvement in model performance, while further increasing the computational cost. Factoring in the ‘random’ movements of casual and occasional travellers, who have been quoted to potentially increase the rate of transmission between regions by 25%, 58 would involve further computational burden, and is particularly difficult to implement in an inferential setting without appropriate auxiliary information (e.g. if the census data contained information on the purpose of travel).

When a kinematic problem is formulated, it is necessary to recognize the type of relative motion permitted in each of the joints and to assign to it some variable parameter(s) for measuring or calculating the motion. There will be as many of these parameters as there are degrees of freedom of the joint in question, and they are referred to as joint variables. Thus, the joint variable of a pinned joint will be a single angle measured between reference lines fixed in the adjacent links, while a spheric joint will have three joint variables (all angles) to specify its three-dimensional rotation.

Reuleaux separated kinematic pairs into two categories: namely, higher pairs and lower pairs, with the latter category consisting of the six prescribed types to be discussed next. He distinguished between the categories by noting that lower pairs, such as the pin joint, have surface contact between the joint elements, while higher pairs, such as the connection between a cam and its follower, have line or point contact between the elemental surfaces. This criterion, however, can be misleading (as noted in the case of a needle bearing). We should rather look for distinguishing features in the relative motion(s) that the joint allows between the connected links.

the analyses carried out in this work have neglected the first 50 days of the epidemic, concentrating on a period when there is substantial transmission in the population and appropriate data are becoming available. As a result, a deterministic system can adequately describe the future evolution of the pandemic. Stochastic effects are significant and need to be incorporated into the model if monitoring is needed in the earlier stages.

The role of serological data is shown in figure 10 of Birrell et al., 47 in which epidemic projections have been sequentially made using only noisy primary care consultation data in the absence of serology data. A reliable picture of the epidemic is not available until the epidemic is almost over. This poses some key questions: are serological samples going to be available in a timely manner, in sufficient quantity and quality, and in the right format?

Lower pairs consist of the six prescribed types shown in Fig. 1.2.

the existing modelling approach only has utility once the epidemic is well established and the infection is widespread

The names and the symbols (Hartenberg and Denavit [4]) that are commonly employed for the six lower pairs are presented in Table 1.1. The table also includes the number of degrees of freedom and the joint variables that are associated with each lower pair.

Immunity is assumed to be present in all individuals with haemagglutination inhibition assay titre values above a given threshold, but in reality, things may not be quite so well defined. It would be ideal if the uncertainty in determining the presence of immunity could be propagated into the analysis of the real-time model.

The revolute or turning pair, R (Fig. 1.2a), permits only relative rotation and is often referred to as a pin joint. This joint has one degree of freedom.

La torsion du cordon spermatique survient préférentiellement au moment des pics d'activité hormonale (nourrisson et adolescent entre 12 et 18 ans). Elle est rare après 40 ans

Torsion testiculaire :

• Le cordon réalise alors un ou plusieurs tours de spire qui entraînent une ischémie artérielle du testicule, pouvant devenir irréversible au-delà de 6 heures.
• Chez le jeune enfant et le nouveau- né, la torsion du cordon est plus rare et est extravaginale.

Torsion testiculaire

• Il s'agit d'une urgence chirurgicale.
• Toute douleur testiculaire unilatérale brutale est une torsion du cordon spermatique jusqu'à preuve du contraire chez un enfant, adolescent ou adulte jeune.

[After describing the lower pairs...] All other joint types are called higher pairs. Examples include mating gear teeth, a wheel rolling and/or sliding on a rail, a ball rolling on a flat surface, and a cam contacting its follower. Since an unlimited variety of higher pairs exist, a systematic accounting of them is not a realistic objective. We shall treat each separately as it arises.

Torsion testiculaire

• Le patient décrit une douleur :
  • Aiguë
  • Brutale (il peut souvent en donner l'heure du début)
  • Intense
  • Continue
  • Unilatérale
  • Irradiant vers la région inguinale
  • Sans position antalgique
  • Gênant la marche
  • Parfois accompagnée de nausées ou vomissements

Il peut exister des épisodes de torsion-détorsion dans les antécédents (épisodes douloureux scrotaux spontanément résolutifs)