on 22-Jun-2017 (Thu)

Often obscure, abstract Clear with judicious use and heavy on jargon of technical terms where needed

Dissertation Structure: Often progressive
Book Structure: Organic unity, narrative recitation thread

Dissertation Referencing: Often far more than strictly necessary
Book Referencing: Only what is necessary

Language teachers tend to agree with the notion that what needs to be taught is critical language awareness, interpretive skills, and historical consciousness,

we argue that our understanding of culture is socially and historically contingent and that different views on history are not only difficult to grasp but, for many, impossible to accept. We offer a way of language teaching that approaches language as both a personal and a cultural/historical event and that places individual experience into a larger social and historical framework.

The peripheral nervous system has two main subdivisions, the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

The somatic nervous system sends and receives sensory messages that control voluntary motor movement of the skeletal (striated or lined) muscles.

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls automatic or involuntary bodily functions of the smooth muscles and glands, including digestion, heart rate, and breathing. The primary function of the ANS is to maintain homeostasis.

The ANS is further subdivided into two systems, the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system.

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is the body's "mobilizing" system. Also known as the "fight or flight" system, itis dominant during times of stress. When this mobilizing system is activated, hormones are released into the bloodstream. These hormones result in increased respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure and decreases in the processes of digestion and elimination.

The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) is the "energy conserving" system, and is dominant when a person is relaxed. The main function of the PNS is basic body maintenance, which is accomplished by slowing heart rate, blood pressure and respiration, while increasing digestion and elimination.

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the spinal cord and brain, with sensory (afferent) neurons carrying information into the CNS, and motor (efferent) neurons carrying information away from the CNS to muscles and glands.

The spinal cord is divided into four regions. The cervical or neck region includes vertebrae CI through C7. The thoracic or chest region includes vertebrae Tl through T12. The lumbar or back region includes vertebrae LI through L5. Finally, the sacral region includes the SI vertebra. When the spinal cord is damaged, muscles served by sections of the spinal cord below the damaged area do not function normally, and paralysis may result.

Severing the spinal cord anywhere between CI and C5 results in paralysis in all four limbs termed quadriplegia

Paraplegia refers to paralysis in the legs only. Severing the spinal cord at C6 or C7 results in both paraplegiaand partial paralysis of the arms. Severing the spinal cord at Tl or below results in paraplegia only

Incomplete severing of the spinal cord may result in muscle weakness, termed paresis,ratherthan full paralysis. Strokes can also cause paresis.

Even when the spinal cord is damaged, many reflexes still remain intact (e.g., the knee jerk reflex). A male who is paralyzed can therefore achieve an erection (a reflex). He may even be able to ejaculate and experience sensations of orgasm.

The major divisions of the brain are: a) the cerebrum, consisting of the cerebral cortex and subcortical areas, b) the cerebellum,and c) the brain stem.

The cerebrum is involved with complex thought, perception, and action. The outer layer of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex and the inside layer contains the subcortical areas.

The cerebral cortex is divided into halves, the right and left hemispheres, which are connected with a thick band of nerve fibers, the corpus callosum. Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes -- frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. Thus one can speak of eight different combinations: the right frontal lobe, the left frontal lobe, the right temporal lobe, etc. The lobes are separated from each other by elongated grooves (sulci). The central sulcus separates the frontal and parietal lobes; the lateral sulcus separates the temporal lobes from the frontal and parietal lobes.

The left hemisphere is dominant in about 97% of all people. Dominance refers to control over language, which includes reading, writing, speaking, spelling, naming, as well as motor control. About 90% of the population is right handed, and almost all right-handers are left hemisphere dominant

damage to the left hemisphere may result in aphasia (speech disorder), other language problems (e.g., agraphia, anomia), apraxia (motor disorder), and/or difficulties with the right side of the body.

The right hemisphere is involved with perceptual, visuospatial, artistic, musical, and intuitive activities. The right hemisphere is also associated with the maintenance of body image, and the comprehension and expression of visual, facial, and verbal emotion

Damage to the right hemisphere mayresultin cognitive abnormalities that includeleft side hemi-neglect, prosopagnosia, visual-perceptual disturbances, and agnosia for musical sounds. Affective abnormalities that may occur include indifference, euphoria, hysteria, depression, mania, disinhibition, impulsivity, and abnormal sexual behavior.

There are three main divisions of the frontal lobes: the prefrontal cortex, the premotor area, and the motor area.

The prefrontal cortex is critical to personality, emotionality, inhibition, planning and initiative, abstract thinking, judgment, and higher mental functions (e.g., cognitive flexibility) - that which makes us unique humanbeings.

The premotor area is involved in planningmovement, while the motor area instigates voluntary muscle movement.

Broca's area is located in the left frontal lobe, and controls the muscles that produce speech.