on 14-Apr-2021 (Wed)

A court with authority for judicial review may invalidate laws acts and governmental actions which violates the Basic features of Constitution.

articles for the judicial review For Supreme court Article 32 (Right to Constitutional Remedy) and Article 136 (Special leave to appeal by the Supreme Court).

Judicial review is one of the checks and balances in the separation of powers: the power of the judiciary to supervise the legislative and executive branches when the latter exceed their authority.

which executive or legislative actions are subject to review by the judiciary.

(1) "animal" includes amphibians, birds, mammals and reptiles and their young, and also includes, in the cases of birds and reptiles, their eggs;]

(2) "animal article" means an article made from any captive animal or wild animal, other than vermin, and includes an article or object in which the whole or any part of such animal

(5) “captive animal” means any animal, specified in Schedule I, Schedule II, Schedule III or Schedule IV, which is captured or kept or bred in captivity;

"Chief Wild Life Warden"

1) The Central Government may, for the purposes of this Act, appoint,--

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(a) A Director of Wild Life Preservation;

(2) In the performance of his duties and exercise of his powers by or under this Act, the Chief Wild Life Warden shall be subject to such general or special directions, as the State Government may from time to time, give.

(1) The State Government

(1) The Director may, with the previous approval of the Central Government, by order in writing, delegate all or any of his powers and duties under this Act to any officer subordinate

(2) The Chief Wild Life Warden may, with the previous approval of the State Government, by order in writing, delegate all or any of his powers and duties under this Act, except those under clause (a) of sub-section (1) of section 11, to any officer subordinate

[9. Prohibition of hunting.---No person shall hunt any wild animal specified in Schedules I, II, III and IV except as provided under section 11 and section 12.]

a) the Chief Wild Life Warden may, if he is satisfied that any wild animal specified in Schedule I has become dangerous to human life or is so disabled or diseased as to be beyond recovery, by Order in writing and stating the reasons therefor, permit any person to hunt such animal or cause such animal to be hunted;

Provided that no wild animal shall be ordered to be killed unless the Chief Wild Life Warden is satisfied that such animal cannot be captured, tranquilised or translocated:

by order in writing and stating the reasons therefor, permit any person to hunt ²[such animal or group of animals in a specified area or cause such animal or group of animals in that specified area to be hunted].

(b) the Chief Wild Life Warden or the authorised officer may, if he is satisfied that any wild animal specified in Schedule II, Schedule III, or Schedule IV, has become dangerous to human life or to property (including standing crops on any land)

(2) The killing or wounding in good faith of any wild animal in defence of oneself or of any other person shall not be an offence:

(3) Amy wild animal killed or wounded in defence of any person shall be Government property.

Chief Wild Life Warden, to grant¹***a permit, by an order in writing stating the reasons therefor, to any person, on payment of such fee as may be prescribed, which shall entitle the holder of such permit to hunt subject to such conditions as may be specified therein, any wild animal specified in such permit, for the purpose of,--

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(a) education;

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²[(b) scientific research;

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(bb) scientific management.

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Explanation.-- For the purposes of clause (bb), the expression, "scientific management" means--

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(i) translocation of any wild animals to an alternative suitable habitat; or

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(ii) population management of wildlife, without killing or poisoning or destroying any wild animals;]

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³[(c) collection of specimens--

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(i) for recognised zoos subject to the permission under section 38-I; or

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(ii) for museums and similar institutions;

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(d) derivation, collection or preparation of snake-venom for the manufacture of life-saving drugs:]

no such permit shall be granted--

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(a) in respect of any wild animal specified in Schedule I, except with the previous permission of the Central Government, and

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(b) in respect of any other wild animal, except with the previous permission of the State Government;]

Listeria monocytogenes is an important bacterial pathogen in neonates, immunosuppressed patients, older adults, pregnant women, and, occasionally, previously healthy individuals.

L. monocytogenes causes invasive disease including meningitis, meningoencephalitis, and bacteremia in susceptible patients, such as immunosuppressed patients, individuals at the extremes of age (neonates and older adults), and pregnant women

The importance of age was illustrated in a four-state, multicenter survey of bacterial meningitis in the United States in 1995 [2]. Listeria accounted for 22 percent of cases in older adults, 23 percent in neonates, and only 4 percent between the ages of 2 and 60.

Listeria is a short gram-positive rod that occurs singly or in short chains. However, the identification of Listeria on Gram stain may be challenging. Listeria may resemble pneumococci (diplococci) or diphtheroids (Corynebacteria) or be gram variable and confused with Haemophilus species (picture 1) [3-5]. Thus, the possibility of Listeria should always be considered when "diphtheroids" are reported to be growing from blood or CSF cultures.

Listeria is aerobic and facultatively anaerobic and grows well at refrigeration temperatures (4° to 10°C). Rarely, the "cold enrichment" technique and selective media are used when attempting to isolate Listeria from mixed cultures, such as stool [6]. Listeria produces a characteristic appearance on blood agar with small zones of clear beta-hemolysis around each colony (picture 2). They are motile and non-spore-forming and exhibit characteristic tumbling motility by light microscopy (picture 3 and movie 1) [5,6].

L. monocytogenes is the only Listeria species that regularly infects humans, although rare cases of human infections with Listeria ivanovii (a pathogen of ruminants) and Listeria grayi have been reported [7,8].

Gastroenteritis — Listeria accounts for less than 1 percent of reported cases of bacterial foodborne infections overall [9,10].

The attack rate in various outbreaks of gastroenteritis varied from 50 to 100 percent [1]. Listeria infection is more common in the summer.

Clinical features — Febrile gastroenteritis secondary to listerial infection typically occurs after ingestion of a large inoculum of bacteria from contaminated food and can occur in otherwise healthy hosts [1].

The incubation period for Listeria gastroenteritis is substantially shorter than the incubation period for invasive disease [1,13,14]. For gastroenteritis, the mean incubation period is 24 hours (range 6 hours to 10 days) [1].

Similar to other causes of acute foodborne infectious diarrheal disease, common symptoms include fever, watery diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, headache, and pains in joints and muscles. The typical duration of symptoms is two days or less, and recovery is generally complete [1].

Invasive infection as a sequela of listerial gastroenteritis seems to be rare; the risk is greatest in immunocompromised, pregnant, or older adult patients

Diagnosis — Listeriosis should be suspected in patients with presumptive Listeria exposure (table 1) and relevant symptoms (including myalgia, abdominal or back pain, nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea), with or without fever ≥38.1°C (100.6°F) [15]. The diagnosis of Listeria as a cause of febrile gastroenteritis is often not entertained as patients may not seek medical attention, and symptoms resolve within a short period of time.

Stool studies should be obtained to evaluate for common alternative causes of diarrheal illness, including routine stool culture (or multiplex polymerase chain reaction [PCR] in centers where available) and testing for detection of Clostridioides (formerly Clostridium) difficile. (see 'Differential diagnosis' below). In addition, blood cultures should be obtained for patients who are febrile and/or immunocompromised.

In the absence of bacteremia, it is difficult to establish a definitive diagnosis of listerial febrile gastroenteritis, since standard stool culture media for detection of common enteric pathogens has low sensitivity for detection of Listeria. Therefore, listerial gastroenteritis is a presumptive diagnosis based on clinical manifestations and presumptive exposure in the setting of an outbreak.

In the setting of suspected Listeria gastroenteritis, there is no role for routine pursuit of stool cultures plated on special selective media, since such cultures have not been validated as a screening tool.

Differential diagnosis — The differential diagnosis of listeria gastroenteritis is broad; it includes a number of pathogens transmitted by food and water as well as C. difficile (table 2 and table 3).

Invasive disease

Incubation period — For invasive listeriosis, the mean incubation period is 11 days; 90 percent of cases occur within 28 days [16].

Bloodstream infection — Most nonpregnant patients with Listeria bacteremia are either immunocompromised or adults of older age. Mortality with isolated bacteremia is high; in one series, the three-month mortality rate was 45 percent [17].

Clinical features and diagnosis — Patients with bacteremia typically present with fever and chills, and nearly a quarter of patients have had antecedent diarrhea [17]. Septic shock can develop but is rare [17]. There may be seeding of the brain and/or meninges, leading to meningoencephalitis or cerebritis; the risk of concurrent central nervous system (CNS) infection is relatively high in immunocompromised patients [20].

Stool culture is not indicated in patients with systemic listeriosis [18,19].

Evaluation for complications — Patients with listerial bacteremia should be evaluated with a thorough history and physical exam to elucidate any neurologic signs or symptoms that raise the suspicion of CNS involvement. We perform magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with contrast in patients with listerial bacteremia and CNS signs or symptoms. A lumbar puncture should also be performed in patients with listerial bacteremia exhibiting symptoms of CNS involvement regardless of MRI findings.

Spectrum of CNS involvement — The most common central nervous system (CNS) manifestation of listerial infection is meningoencephalitis [17]; this may be generalized or with focal involvement of the brainstem (rhombencephalitis). Among 252 patients with CNS listeriosis in the MONALISA study, a nationwide prospective study in France, 212 (84 percent) had meningoencephalitis [17]. Listeria may also cause isolated meningitis. Cerebritis, which infrequently progresses to brain abscess, is less common. Patients can also manifest spinal and brain abscesses from hematogenous seeding [21]. The risk of CNS involvement in the setting of Listeria infection is highest in immunocompromised patients.

The clinical presentation of Listeria CNS infection ranges from a mild illness with fever and mental status changes to a fulminant course with coma [3,5,22,23]. Many adults with CNS listerial infection do not have specific clinical signs of meningitis. As an example, in a review of 820 nonpregnant patients with CNS listeriosis, 42 percent presented without signs of meningeal irritation [23].

Focal neurologic signs suggestive of brain involvement or inflammation may be present. These include cranial nerve abnormalities, ataxia, tremors, hemiplegia, and deafness. Seizures can also occur; if they do, they often begin later in the course of the illness.

In the review of 820 patients described above, one-third had focal neurologic findings and one-quarter had seizures [ 23]. In a prospective study of 30 adults with Listeria meningitis, 43 percent of patients had the triad of fever, neck stiffness, and altered mental status; only 37 percent of patients had focal neurologic deficits [24]. In a cohort study of 818 cases of listeriosis, which included 252 cases of neurolisteriosis, the majority of patients with neurolisteriosis presented with encephalitis-associated symptoms (87 percent) [17]; meningeal involvement without encephalitis was only seen in 13 percent of patients, and brainstem involvement was observed in only 17 percent. Occasionally, cerebritis can result from direct hematogenous invasion of cerebral parenchyma, usually with little or no involvement of the meninges [25]. In such cases, patients may have fever, headache, and focal neurologic signs in the absence of other meningeal signs.

Rhombencephalitis (encephalitis involving the brainstem and/or cerebellum) is a relatively uncommon manifestation of listerial meningoencephalitis that typically occurs in healthy individuals who have acquired Listeria via contaminated food consumption, often in outbreaks. Among 252 cases of CNS listeriosis in a nationwide prospective study in France, 42 (17 percent) had brainstem involvement [17]. Rhombencephalitis often follows a biphasic course, beginning with headache, fever, nausea, and vomiting, followed over the course of several days by cranial nerve palsies, ataxia, tremor, and other cerebellar signs, decreased consciousness, and possibly seizures and hemiparesis. Almost one-half develop respiratory failure.

CSF findings — Analysis of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in patients with CNS Listeria infection, even in cases of rhombencephalitis, may reveal only mild abnormalities [23,26]. It may show a pleocytosis, with a differential that can range from 100 percent polymorphonuclear cells to 100 percent mononuclear cells. Listeria is the one nontuberculous bacteria that causes a substantial number of lymphocytes in the CSF in the absence of antibiotic therapy. In a review of 820 patients, the CSF protein concentration was moderately elevated in almost all patients (mean 168 mg/dL) and the CSF glucose concentration was reduced in 39 percent [23]. CSF Gram stain is usually negative, but culture is usually positive for Listeria, even when the CSF profile is only mildly abnormal or shows a lymphocytic predominance [5]. Rarely, blood cultures can be positive when the CSF culture is not [23].

Evaluation and diagnosis — As with any case of suspected bacterial meningitis, lumbar puncture with CSF analysis, culture, and PCR, if available, should be obtained in all cases of patients clinically suspected of CNS listeriosis. Blood cultures should also be obtained.

If CSF culture and PCR are negative but blood cultures are positive and the patient exhibits signs or symptoms of CNS involvement, then a diagnosis of CNS listeriosis can also be made.

Gram stain of the CSF in Listeria meningitis has a low sensitivity, being positive (for gram-positive rods) in only about one-third of patients.

In an immunocompromised, chronically ill, or older adult patient with a negative Gram stain and acute meningitis, an evaluation for Listeria should be pursued prior to making a presumptive diagnosis of viral (aseptic) meningitis.

In a literature review that included 10 patients with Listeria brain abscess/cerebritis without meningitis, Listeria was cultured from the blood in eight but from the CSF in only two. Similarly, blood cultures were more often positive than CSF cultures (61 versus 41 percent) in a review of patients with rhombencephalitis [23,27].

Increasingly, invasive listeriosis is being diagnosed with culture-independent diagnostic technologies (such as multiplex PCR panel for meningitis/encephalitis) [12]. A real-time PCR assay for the hly gene, which encodes listeriolysin O, can be used on CSF to detect Listeria and appears to be specific and more sensitive than culture [23,24,28,29].

We also pursue radiographic imaging in patients with known or suspected listerial meningoencephalitis. MRI with contrast (image 1) is more sensitive than computed tomographic (CT) (image 2) for the detection of Listeria lesions in the cerebellum, brainstem, and cortex [27,30]. MRI better demonstrates the brainstem abnormalities than CT scan, which is often normal at presentation [27]. High-signal lesions on T2-weighted images and enhancing lesions on T1-weighted images after the administration of intravenous contrast are seen in the cerebral parenchyma.

For patients who present with symptoms of rhombencephalitis (focal involvement of the brainstem), Listeria is the most common infectious cause; however, noninfectious causes can also result in a similar clinical presentation. In one series of 97 patients with rhombencephalitis, most cases (n = 31) were of unknown etiology, and multiple sclerosis (n = 28) was the most common identified cause overall [31].

Unlike other etiologies, listerial rhombencephalitis was associated with a low level of consciousness in 78 percent of cases; fever and meningeal signs were more common than in other causes of rhombencephalitis. Other noninfectious conditions that can cause brainstem and/or cerebellar lesions include sarcoidosis, systemic rheumatic diseases (Behçet syndrome, systemic lupus erythematosus, relapsing polychondritis), lymphoma, and paraneoplastic syndromes and should be considered if infectious etiologies, including Listeria have been ruled out or considered unlikely.

Other infectious etiologies of encephalitis that may involve the brainstem and/or cerebellum include herpes simplex virus [32], Lyme disease, Epstein-Barr virus, and Brucella. In patients with an immunocompromising condition, additional considerations include toxoplasmosis, cryptococcosis, and reactivation of John Cunningham virus. Tuberculosis is also a possible cause of rhombencephalitis in patients with relevant epidemiologic risk. The distinction is usually made based on culture or molecular testing of CSF. In some cases, empiric treatment for some of these other etiologies is warranted pending microbiologic results.

Other complications include Parinaud oculoglandular syndrome, lymphadenitis, pneumonia and empyema [37], myocarditis, endocarditis (usually with a subacute presentation), septic arthritis, osteomyelitis, prosthetic joint infection [38], necrotizing fasciitis [39], arteritis, prosthetic graft infection [40], and biliary tract infection [34].

Pregnant patients — The incidence of listeriosis associated with pregnancy is approximately 10 times higher than in the general population [15,41-43].

Clinical manifestations — Listerial syndromes in pregnancy include febrile gastroenteritis and bacteremia. They are diagnosed most commonly during the third trimester.

Maternal infection may present as a nonspecific, flu-like illness with fever, myalgia, abdominal or back pain, nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea [44]. Listeria infection may be mild and resolve without therapy, and the diagnosis missed if blood cultures are not obtained [5,14]. Among pregnant women with listeria bacteremia, CNS involvement is relatively uncommon [22].

Outcomes for pregnant women with Listeria are typically good; however, fetal and neonatal infections can be severe, leading to fetal loss, preterm labor, neonatal sepsis, meningitis, and death.

For pregnant women with presumptive Listeria exposure who are asymptomatic, no diagnostic evaluation is necessary and no empiric antibiotic treatment is warranted; such patients should be advised to return for evaluation if symptoms develop within two months of presumptive exposure [15].

Central nervous system involvement of L. monocytogenes most commonly manifests with meningoencephalitis, which ranges from a mild illness with fever and mental status changes to a fulminant course with coma. Many patients do not have signs of meningeal irritation. Less common manifestations include cerebritis (which infrequently progresses to brain abscess) and rhombencephalitis.