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#python #scip

data is stuff that we want to manipulate, and functions describe the rules for manipulating the data

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1.2 Elements of Programming
d means of abstraction , by which compound elements can be named and manipulated as units. In programming, we deal with two kinds of elements: functions and data. (Soon we will discover that they are really not so distinct.) Informally, data is stuff that we want to manipulate, and functions describe the rules for manipulating the data. Thus, any powerful programming language should be able to describe primitive data and primitive functions, as well as have some methods for combining and abstracting both functions and

Annotation 1436353432844

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One kind of primitive expression is a number. More precisely, the expression that you type consists of the numerals that represent the number in base 10

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1.2 Elements of Programming
terpreter in the previous section, we now start anew, methodically developing the Python language element by element. Be patient if the examples seem simplistic — more exciting material is soon to come. We begin with primitive expressions. One kind of primitive expression is a number. More precisely, the expression that you type consists of the numerals that represent the number in base 10. >>> 42 42 Expressions representing numbers may be combined with mathematical operators to form a compound expression, which the interpreter will evaluate: >>>

Annotation 1436354481420

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The most important kind of compound expression is a call expression, which applies a function to some arguments.

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1.2 Elements of Programming
ways to form compound expressions. Rather than attempt to enumerate them all immediately, we will introduce new expression forms as we go, along with the language features that they support. 1.2.2 Call Expressions Video: Show Hide The most important kind of compound expression is a call expression, which applies a function to some arguments. Recall from algebra that the mathematical notion of a function is a mapping from some input arguments to an output value. For instance, the max function maps its inputs to a single ou

Annotation 1436355529996

#python #scip

the operator is an expression that precedes parentheses, which enclose a comma-delimited list of operand expressions.

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1.2 Elements of Programming
s inputs to a single output, which is the largest of the inputs. The way in which Python expresses function application is the same as in conventional mathematics. >>> max(7.5, 9.5) 9.5 This call expression has subexpressions: the operator is an expression that precedes parentheses, which enclose a comma-delimited list of operand expressions. The operator specifies a function. When this call expression is evaluated, we say that the function max is called with arguments 7.5 and 9.5, and returns a value of 9.5. The

Annotation 1436356578572

#python #scip

The operator specifies a function. When this call expression is evaluated, we say that the function max is called with arguments 7.5 and 9.5, and returns a value of 9.5.

The order of the arguments in a call expression matters. For instance, the function pow raises its first argument to the power of its second argument.

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1.2 Elements of Programming
he same as in conventional mathematics. >>> max(7.5, 9.5) 9.5 This call expression has subexpressions: the operator is an expression that precedes parentheses, which enclose a comma-delimited list of operand expressions. The operator specifies a function. When this call expression is evaluated, we say that the function max is called with arguments 7.5 and 9.5, and returns a value of 9.5. The order of the arguments in a call expression matters. For instance, the function pow raises its first argument to the power of its second argument. >>> pow(100, 2) 10000 >>> pow(2, 100) 1267650600228229401496703205376 Function notation has three principal advantages over the mathematical convention of infix

Annotation 1436357627148

#python #scip

Function notation has three principal advantages over the mathematical convention of infix notation. First, functions may take an arbitrary number of arguments:

 >>> max ( 1 , - 2 , 3 , - 4 ) 3

No ambiguity can arise, because the function name always precedes its arguments.

Second, function notation extends in a straightforward way to nested expressions, where the elements are themselves compound expressions. In nested call expressions, unlike compound infix expressions, the structure of the nesting is entirely explicit in the parentheses.

 >>> max ( min ( 1 , - 2 ), min ( pow ( 3 , 5 ), - 4 )) -2

There is no limit (in principle) to the depth of such nesting and to the overall complexity of the expressions that the Python interpreter can evaluate. However, humans quickly get confused by multi-level nesting. An important role for you as a programmer is to structure expressions so that they remain interpretable by yourself, your programming partners, and other people who may read your expressions in the future.

Third, mathematical notation has a great variety of forms: multiplication appears between terms, exponents appear as superscripts, division as a horizontal bar, and a square root as a roof with slanted siding. Some of this notation is very hard to type! However, all of this complexity can be unified via the notation of call expressions. While Python supports common mathematical operators using infix notation (like + and - ), any operator can be expressed as a function with a name.

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1.2 Elements of Programming
order of the arguments in a call expression matters. For instance, the function pow raises its first argument to the power of its second argument. >>> pow(100, 2) 10000 >>> pow(2, 100) 1267650600228229401496703205376 Function notation has three principal advantages over the mathematical convention of infix notation. First, functions may take an arbitrary number of arguments: >>> max(1, -2, 3, -4) 3 No ambiguity can arise, because the function name always precedes its arguments. Second, function notation extends in a straightforward way to nested expressions, where the elements are themselves compound expressions. In nested call expressions, unlike compound infix expressions, the structure of the nesting is entirely explicit in the parentheses. >>> max(min(1, -2), min(pow(3, 5), -4)) -2 There is no limit (in principle) to the depth of such nesting and to the overall complexity of the expressions that the Python interpreter can evaluate. However, humans quickly get confused by multi-level nesting. An important role for you as a programmer is to structure expressions so that they remain interpretable by yourself, your programming partners, and other people who may read your expressions in the future. Third, mathematical notation has a great variety of forms: multiplication appears between terms, exponents appear as superscripts, division as a horizontal bar, and a square root as a roof with slanted siding. Some of this notation is very hard to type! However, all of this complexity can be unified via the notation of call expressions. While Python supports common mathematical operators using infix notation (like + and - ), any operator can be expressed as a function with a name. 1.2.3 Importing Library Functions Python defines a very large number of functions, including the operator functions mentioned in the preceding section, but does not make all o

Flashcard 1436371258636

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First, pure functions can be composed more reliably into compound call expressions.

Answer

[default - edit me]

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1.2 Elements of Programming
assignment statement. >>> two = print(2) 2 >>> print(two) None Pure functions are restricted in that they cannot have side effects or change behavior over time. Imposing these restrictions yields substantial benefits. First, pure functions can be composed more reliably into compound call expressions. We can see in the non-pure function example above that print does not return a useful result when used in an operand expression. On the other hand, we have seen that functions such

Flashcard 1441919798540

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Question

What is an "enviroment?"

Answer

memory that keeps track of the names, values, and bindings.

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memory that keeps track of the names, values, and bindings. This memory is called an environment.

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1.2 Elements of Programming
x programs are constructed by building, step by step, computational objects of increasing complexity. The possibility of binding names to values and later retrieving those values by name means that the interpreter must maintain some sort of memory that keeps track of the names, values, and bindings. This memory is called an environment. Names can also be bound to functions. For instance, the name max is bound to the max function we have been using. Functions, unlike numbers, are tricky to render as text, so Python

Flashcard 1441922157836

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If a value has been given a name, we say that the name [...] to the value

Answer

binds

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If a value has been given a name, we say that the name binds to the value

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1.2 Elements of Programming
y, this documentation will become a valuable reference source. 1.2.4 Names and the Environment Video: Show Hide A critical aspect of a programming language is the means it provides for using names to refer to computational objects. If a value has been given a name, we say that the name binds to the value. In Python, we can establish new bindings using the assignment statement, which contains a name to the left of = and a value to the right: >>> radius = 10 >>> ra

Flashcard 1441923992844

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the [...] is an expression that precedes parentheses, which enclose a comma-delimited list of operand expressions.

Answer

operator

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the operator is an expression that precedes parentheses, which enclose a comma-delimited list of operand expressions.

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Flashcard 1441925565708

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the operator is an expression that precedes parentheses, which enclose a comma-delimited list of [...] expressions.

Answer

operand

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the operator is an expression that precedes parentheses, which enclose a comma-delimited list of operand expressions.

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Flashcard 1441927138572

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The most important kind of compound expression is a [...] which applies a function to some arguments.

Answer

call expression,

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The most important kind of compound expression is a call expression, which applies a function to some arguments.

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Flashcard 1441928711436

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What do primitives (expressions and elements) do? What is their purpose?

Answer

represent the simplest building blocks that the language provides,

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Every powerful language has three such mechanisms: primitive expressions and statements , which represent the simplest building blocks that the language provides, means of combination , by which compound elements are built from simpler ones, and means of abstraction , by which compound elements can be named and manipulated as units.

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1.2 Elements of Programming
ust be written for people to read, and only incidentally for machines to execute. When we describe a language, we should pay particular attention to the means that the language provides for combining simple ideas to form more complex ideas. Every powerful language has three such mechanisms: primitive expressions and statements , which represent the simplest building blocks that the language provides, means of combination , by which compound elements are built from simpler ones, and means of abstraction , by which compound elements can be named and manipulated as units. In programming, we deal with two kinds of elements: functions and data. (Soon we will discover that they are really not so distinct.) Informally, data is stuff that we want to manipul

Flashcard 1441931070732

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Question

What are "means of combination?"

Answer

A term for how compound elements are built from simpler ones

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Flashcard 1441933430028

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What is meant by "means of abstraction?"

Answer

compound elements can be named and manipulated as units.

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h mechanisms: primitive expressions and statements , which represent the simplest building blocks that the language provides, means of combination , by which compound elements are built from simpler ones, and means of abstraction , by which compound elements can be named and manipulated as units.<body><html>

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Flashcard 1441941032204

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Question

An environment in which an expression is evaluated consists of

Answer

a sequence of frames

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An environment in which an expression is evaluated consists of a sequence of frames, depicted as boxes. Each frame contains bindings, each of which associates a name with its corresponding value. There is a single global frame. Assignment and impor

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1.3 Defining New Functions
gh that the meaning of programs is non-obvious. What if a formal parameter has the same name as a built-in function? Can two functions share names without confusion? To resolve such questions, we must describe environments in more detail. An environment in which an expression is evaluated consists of a sequence of frames, depicted as boxes. Each frame contains bindings, each of which associates a name with its corresponding value. There is a single global frame. Assignment and import statements add entries to the first frame of the current environment. So far, our environment consists only of the global frame. 1 from math import pi 2 tau = 2 * pi Edit code in Online Python Tutor

Flashcard 1441959906572

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What is a concurrent program?

Answer

A program in which multiple call expressions may be evaluated simultaneously.

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Third, Chapter 4 will illustrate that pure functions are essential for writing concurrent programs, in which multiple call expressions may be evaluated simultaneously.

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1.2 Elements of Programming
expressions. Second, pure functions tend to be simpler to test. A list of arguments will always lead to the same return value, which can be compared to the expected return value. Testing is discussed in more detail later in this chapter. Third, Chapter 4 will illustrate that pure functions are essential for writing concurrent programs, in which multiple call expressions may be evaluated simultaneously. By contrast, Chapter 2 investigates a range of non-pure functions and describes their uses. For these reasons, we concentrate heavily on creating and using pure functions in the rem

Flashcard 1441963052300

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What are ways that pure functions are restricted?

Answer

Pure functions are restricted in that they cannot have side effects or change behavior over time.

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Pure functions are restricted in that they cannot have side effects or change behavior over time.

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1.2 Elements of Programming
this expression produces this peculiar output. Be careful with print ! The fact that it returns None means that it should not be the expression in an assignment statement. >>> two = print(2) 2 >>> print(two) None Pure functions are restricted in that they cannot have side effects or change behavior over time. Imposing these restrictions yields substantial benefits. First, pure functions can be composed more reliably into compound call expressions. We can see in the non-pure function example

Flashcard 1441966722316

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Non-pure functions. In addition to returning a value, applying a non-pure function can generate [...], which make some change to the state of the interpreter or computer.

Answer

side effects

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Non-pure functions. In addition to returning a value, applying a non-pure function can generate side effects, which make some change to the state of the interpreter or computer. A common side effect is to generate additional output beyond the return value, using the print function.</spa

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1.2 Elements of Programming
s output. The function abs is pure. Pure functions have the property that applying them has no effects beyond returning a value. Moreover, a pure function must always return the same value when called twice with the same arguments. Non-pure functions. In addition to returning a value, applying a non-pure function can generate side effects, which make some change to the state of the interpreter or computer. A common side effect is to generate additional output beyond the return value, using the print function. >>> print(1, 2, 3) 1 2 3 While print and abs may appear to be similar in these examples, they work in fundamentally different ways. The value that print returns is

Flashcard 1447028985100

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Question

The '=' symbol is called the [...] in Python (and many other languages)

Answer

assignment operator

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he = symbol is called the assignment operator in Python (and many other languages)

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1.2 Elements of Programming
= and a value to the right: >>> radius = 10 >>> radius 10 >>> 2 * radius 20 Names are also bound via import statements. >>> from math import pi >>> pi * 71 / 223 1.0002380197528042 The = symbol is called the assignment operator in Python (and many other languages). Assignment is our simplest means of abstraction, for it allows us to use simple names to refer to the results of compound operations, such as the area computed above. In this way, co

Flashcard 1447275924748

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Question

Language can symbolize an individual or an aggregate by either a [...]

Answer

proper name or a particular or empirical description.

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Language can symbolize an individual or an aggregate by either a proper name or a particular or empirical description.

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#3-1-profit-maximization #cfa-level-1 #economics #microeconomics #reading-15-demand-and-supply-analysis-the-firm #section-3-analysis-of-revenue-costs-and-profit #study-session-4

Question

input factors flow from sectors with [...] to sectors with [...].

Answer

economic losses

economic profit

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sfy consumer demand. Allocates resources to their most-efficient use; input factors flow from sectors with economic losses to sectors with economic profit, where profit reflects goods most desired by society. Spurs innovation and the development of new technology. Stimulates business investment and economic growth.<body><html>

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3. ANALYSIS OF REVENUE, COSTS, AND PROFITS
Total variable cost divided by quantity; (TVC ÷ Q) Average total cost (ATC) Total cost divided by quantity; (TC ÷ Q) or (AFC + AVC) Marginal cost (MC) Change in total cost divided by change in quantity; (∆TC ÷ ∆Q) 3.1. Profit Maximization In free markets—and even in regulated market economies—profit maximization tends to promote economic welfare and a higher standard of living, and creates wealth for investors. Profit motivates businesses to use resources efficiently and to concentrate on activities in which they have a competitive advantage. Most economists believe that profit maximization promotes allocational efficiency—that resources flow into their highest valued uses. Overall, the functions of profit are as follows: Rewards entrepreneurs for risk taking when pursuing business ventures to satisfy consumer demand. Allocates resources to their most-efficient use; input factors flow from sectors with economic losses to sectors with economic profit, where profit reflects goods most desired by society. Spurs innovation and the development of new technology. Stimulates business investment and economic growth. There are three approaches to calculate the point of profit maximization. First, given that profit is the difference between total revenue and total costs, maximum profit occurs at the output level where this difference is the greatest. Second, maximum profit can also be calculated by comparing revenue and cost for each individual unit of output that is produced and sold. A business increases profit through greater sales as long as per-unit revenue exceeds per-unit cost on the next unit of output sold. Profit maximization takes place at the point where the last individual output unit breaks even. Beyond this point, total profit decreases because the per-unit cost is higher than the per-unit revenue from successive output units. A third approach compares the revenue generated by each resource unit with the cost of that unit. Profit contribution occurs when the revenue from an input unit exceeds its cost. The point of profit maximization is reached when resource units no longer contribute to profit. All three approaches yield the same profit-maximizing quantity of output. (These approaches will be explained in greater detail later.) Because profit is the difference between revenue and cost, an understanding of profit maximization requires that we examine both of those components. Revenue comes from the demand for the firm’s products, and cost comes from the acquisition and utilization of the firm’s inputs in the production of those products. 3.1.1. Total, Average, and Marginal Revenue This section briefly examines demand and revenue in preparation for addressing cost. Unless the firm is a pu

Flashcard 1471482563852

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Question

there are many kinds of sequences, but they all share common behavior. In particular,

[...]

Element selection. A sequence has an element corresponding to any non-negative integer index less than its length, starting at 0 for the first element.

Answer

Length. A sequence has a finite length. An empty sequence has length 0.

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there are many kinds of sequences, but they all share common behavior. In particular, Length. A sequence has a finite length. An empty sequence has length 0. Element selection. A sequence has an element corresponding to any non-negative integer index less than its length, starting at 0 for the first element.

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2.3 Sequences
ful, fundamental abstraction in computer science. Sequences are not instances of a particular built-in type or abstract data representation, but instead a collection of behaviors that are shared among several different types of data. That is, there are many kinds of sequences, but they all share common behavior. In particular, Length. A sequence has a finite length. An empty sequence has length 0. Element selection. A sequence has an element corresponding to any non-negative integer index less than its length, starting at 0 for the first element. Python includes several native data types that are sequences, the most important of which is the list . 2.3.1 Lists A list value is a sequence that can have arbitrary lengt

Flashcard 1471484136716

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Question

there are many kinds of sequences, but they all share common behavior. In particular,

Length. A sequence has a finite length. An empty sequence has length 0.

[...]

Answer

Element selection. A sequence has an element corresponding to any non-negative integer index less than its length, starting at 0 for the first element.

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Flashcard 1471504846092

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Question

Linked lists are particularly useful when [...], a situation that arises often in recursive computations.

Answer

constructing sequences incrementally

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Linked lists are particularly useful when constructing sequences incrementally, a situation that arises often in recursive computations.

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2.3 Sequences

Annotation 1611432332556

The system allows the instructor to enter custom wordlists (called “lexi- cal themes”) based on his or her curriculum,

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Question

[...] reflects goods most desired by society

Answer

Profit

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Annotation 1611507305740

Theoretically, the development of Linguatorium was rooted in the concept of Linguistic Automaton and the cybernetic approach to instruction as regula- tion and control. Linguistic Automaton (Piotrowski, 1999; Piotrowski & Beli- aeva, 2005) is a theoretical framework for creating computational models of the human verbal-mental activity.

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Annotation 1611508878604

An example of graceful fallback in the context of a vocabulary tutoring system would be a case when the system might not be able to use a lexical unit in certain types of activities due to the lack of semantic information available about the unit, but would still incorporate it into simpler activity types that do not rely on com- putational semantics.

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Annotation 1611510451468

This functionality provided the infra- structure required for double-blind empirical studies of vocabulary acquisition.

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Annotation 1611512024332

In pedagogical research, non-blind randomized controlled trials to date have been the highest standard of evidence-based research design

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Annotation 1611513859340

Based on the above, we aimed the present study at answering two research questions. 1. How do automatically generated supplemental activities based on spaced repetition improve vocabulary learning gains in EFL students? 2. Can double-blind experimental design be successfully implemented in a CALL-based pedagogical intervention study?

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Flashcard 1611517005068

Question

What is the most notable shortcoming of the existing vocabulary learning software?

Answer

“none of the programs is designed to encourage generative use of target words”

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Flashcard 1611563142412

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Question

What represents the simplest building blocks that a language provides?

Answer

[primitive expressions and statements]

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1.2 Elements of Programming
describe a language, we should pay particular attention to the means that the language provides for combining simple ideas to form more complex ideas. Every powerful language has three such mechanisms: primitive expressions and statements , which represent the simplest building blocks that the language provides, means of combination , by which compound elements are built from simpler ones, and means of abstraction , by which compound elements can be named and manipulated as units. In programm

Flashcard 1611565501708

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Question

How are compound elements are built from simpler ones?

Answer

[means of combination]

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1.2 Elements of Programming
the language provides for combining simple ideas to form more complex ideas. Every powerful language has three such mechanisms: primitive expressions and statements , which represent the simplest building blocks that the language provides, means of combination , by which compound elements are built from simpler ones, and means of abstraction , by which compound elements can be named and manipulated as units. In programming, we deal with two kinds of elements: functions and data. (Soon we will disc

Flashcard 1611568909580

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Question

By which means can compound elements be named and manipulated as units?

Answer

[means of abstraction]

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1.2 Elements of Programming
powerful language has three such mechanisms: primitive expressions and statements , which represent the simplest building blocks that the language provides, means of combination , by which compound elements are built from simpler ones, and means of abstraction , by which compound elements can be named and manipulated as units. In programming, we deal with two kinds of elements: functions and data. (Soon we will discover that they are really not so distinct.) Informally, data is stuff that we want to manipu

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on 03-Jun-2017 (Sat)

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