on 17-Jul-2022 (Sun)

As the world warmed up, a new culture based on agriculture and sedentary dwelling emerged, which archaeologists have termed "Pre-Pottery Neolithic A" (abbreviated as PPNA). Its cultures lacked pottery, but featured the following:^{[ citation needed ]}

• small circular dwellings
• burial of the dead under the floor of buildings
• reliance on hunting of wild game
• cultivation of wild or domestic cereals

At Jericho, circular dwellings were built of clay and straw bricks left to dry in the sun, which were plastered together with a mud mortar. Each house measured about 5 metres (16 ft) across, and was roofed with mud-smeared brush. Hearths were located within and outside the homes.

The Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) was a period of about 1.4 millennia, from 7220 to 5850 BCE^{[ clarification needed ]} (though carbon-14-dates are few and early). The following are PPNB cultural features:^{[ citation needed ]}

• Expanded range of domesticated plants
• Possible domestication of sheep
• Apparent cult involving the preservation of human skulls, with facial features reconstructed using plaster, and eyes set with shells in some cases

After a few centuries, the first settlement was abandoned. After the PPNA settlement phase, there was a settlement hiatus of several centuries, then the PPNB settlement was founded on the eroded surface of the tell. This second settlement, established in 6800 BCE, perhaps represents the work of an invading people who absorbed the original inhabitants into their dominant culture.

During the Middle Bronze Age, Jericho was a small prominent city of the Canaan region, reaching its greatest Bronze Age extent in the period from 1700 to 1550 BCE.

It seems to have reflected the greater urbanization in the area at that time, and has been linked to the rise of the Maryannu, a class of chariot-using aristocrats linked to the rise of the Mitannite state to the north.

Tell es-Sultan remained unoccupied from the end of the 15th to the 10th–9th centuries BCE, when the city was rebuilt.^[41][40][42] Of this new city not much more remains than a four-room house on the eastern slope.^[43] By the 7th century, Jericho had become an extensive town, but this settlement was destroyed in the Babylonian conquest of Judah in the late 6th century.^[41]

After the destruction of the Judahite city by the Babylonians in the late 6th century,^[41] whatever was rebuilt in the Persian period as part of the Restoration after the Babylonian captivity, left only very few remains.^[43] The tell was abandoned as a place of settlement not long after this period.

Jericho went from being an administrative centre of Yehud Medinata ("the Province of Judah") under Persian rule to

Jericho went from being an administrative centre of Yehud Medinata ("the Province of Judah") under Persian rule to serving as the private estate of Alexander the Great between 336 and 323 BCE after his conquest of the region.

In the middle of the 2nd century BCE Jericho was under Hellenistic rule of the Seleucid Empire

when the Syrian General Bacchides built a number of forts to strengthen the defences of the area around Jericho against the revolt by the Macabees.^[44] One of these forts, built at the entrance to Wadi Qelt, was later refortified by Herod the Great, who named it Kypros after his mother.^[45]

After the abandonment of the Tell es-Sultan location, the new Jericho of the Late Hellenistic or Hasmonean and Early Roman or Herodian periods was established as a garden city in the vicinity of the royal estate at Tulul Abu el-'Alayiq and expanded greatly thanks to the intensive exploitation of the springs of the area.

The Hasmoneans were a dynasty descending from a priestly group (kohanim) from the tribe of Levi,

The Hasmoneans were a dynasty descending from a priestly group ( kohanim ) from the tribe of Levi , who ruled over Judea following the success of the Maccabean Revolt until Roman influence over the region brought Herod to claim the Hasmonean throne.

Herod had to lease back the royal estate at Jericho from Cleopatra, after Mark Antony had given it to her as a gift.

After their joint suicide in 30 BCE, Octavian assumed control of the Roman Empire and granted Herod absolute rule over Jericho, as part of the new Herodian domain.

Herod was succeeded in Judea by his son, Herod Archelaus, who built a village in his name not far to the north, Archelaïs (modern Khirbet al-Beiyudat), to house workers for his date plantation.

After the fall of Jerusalem to Vespasian's armies in the Great Revolt of Judea in 70 CE

Jericho declined rapidly, and by 100 CE it was but a small Roman garrison town.

A fort was built there in 130 and played a role in putting down the Bar Kochba revolt in 133.

Accounts of Jericho by a Christian pilgrim are given in 333. Shortly thereafter the built-up area of the town was abandoned and a Byzantine Jericho, Ericha, was built 1600 metres (1 mi) to the east, on which the modern town is centered.^[52] Christianity took hold in the city during the Byzantine era and the area was heavily populated. A number of monasteries and churches were built, including St George of Koziba in 340 CE and a domed church dedicated to Saint Eliseus.^[48] At least two synagogues were also built in the 6th century CE.^[45] The monasteries were abandoned after the Persian invasion of 614.

Accounts of Jericho by a Christian pilgrim are given in 333. Shortly thereafter the built-up area of the town was abandoned and a Byzantine Jericho, Ericha, was built 1600 metres (1 mi) to the east, on which the modern town is centered.^[52] Christianity took hold in the city during the Byzantine era and the area was heavily populated. A number of monasteries and churches were built, including St George of Koziba in 340 CE and a domed church dedicated to Saint Eliseus.^[48] At least two synagogues were also built in the 6th century CE.^[45] The monasteries were abandoned after the Persian invasion of 614.

Jericho, by then named "Ariha" in Arabic variation, became part of Jund Filastin ("Military District of Palestine"), part of the larger province of Bilad al-Sham. The Arab Muslim historian Musa b. 'Uqba (died 758) recorded that caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab exiled the Jews and Christians of Khaybar to Jericho (and Tayma).

Muhammad ibn Abdullah^{[n 1]} (Arabic: مُحَمَّد ٱبن عَبْد ٱللَّٰه , romanized: Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh , Classical Arabic pronunciation: [muˈħammad] ; c. 570 – 8 June 632 CE)^[

By 659, that district had come under the control of Mu'awiya, founder of the Umayyad dynasty.

By 659, that district had come under the control of Mu'awiya , founder of the Umayyad dynasty . That year, an earthquake destroyed Jericho. ^[56] A decade later, the pilgrim Arculf visited Jericho and found it in ruins, all its "miserable Canaanite" inhabitants now dispersed in shanty towns around the Dead Sea shore.^[57]

Umayyad rule ended in 750 and was followed by the Arab caliphates of the Abbasid and Fatimid dynasties.

Umayyad rule ended in 750 and was followed by the Arab caliphates of the Abbasid and Fatimid dynasties.

Umayyad rule ended in 750 and was followed by the Arab caliphates of the Abbasid and Fatimid dynasties. Irrigated agriculture was developed under Islamic rule, reaffirming Jericho's reputation as a fertile "City of the Palms". ^[59] Al-Maqdisi, the Arab geographer, wrote in 985 that "the water of Jericho is held to be the highest and best in all Islam. Bananas are plentiful, also dates and flowers of fragrant odor".^[60] Jericho is also referred to by him as one of the principal cities of Jund Filastin.^[61]

The city flourished until 1071 with the invasion of the Seljuk Turks, followed by the upheavals of the Crusades.

The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these Crusades are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were intended to recover Jerusalem and its surrounding area from Islamic rule.

In 1179, the Crusaders rebuilt the Monastery of St. George of Koziba, at its original site 10 kilometres (6 mi) from the center of town. They also built another two churches and a monastery dedicated to John the Baptist, and are credited with introducing sugarcane production to the city.

In 1187, the Crusaders were evicted by the Ayyubid forces of Saladin after their victory in the Battle of Hattin, and the town slowly went into decline.^[18]

Jericho was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1517 with all of Palestine,

After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I, Jericho came under British rule, as part of Mandatory Palestine.

Jericho came under Jordanian control after the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.

World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945.

In mid-1950, Jordan formally annexed the West Bank and Jericho residents, like other residents of West Bank localities became Jordanian citizens.

Jericho has been occupied by Israel since the Six-Day War of 1967 along with the rest of the West Bank.

The clinical manifestations of infection caused by other enteric Cam- pylobacter spp. overlap substantially with those of C. jejuni infec- tion. 149,204,205 On average, C. coli may produce milder disease. 62

The gold standard for diagnosis of Campylobacter infection remains isolation by culture; however, multiple new non–culture-based techniques are now in use.

Campylobacter spp. cannot be isolated from fecal specimens unless microaerobic incubation conditions and selective techniques that reduce the growth of competing microorganisms are used. 4,43

C. fetus is usually isolated from blood cultures 4 to 14 days after the specimen has been obtained. 142

NAATs for Campylobacter diagnosis are usually part of a multiple enteric pathogen panel, including Salmonella, Shigella, and others. 237 However, when antibiotic resistance is a concern, the bacterial isolate is still needed and culture should be concurrently performed, especially in outbreak settings

In addition, NAATs detect bacterial DNA, not viable organisms, and should be interpreted with caution

Examination of diarrheal fecal specimens by darkfield or phase-contrast microscopy within 2 hours of passage can permit a rapid presumptive diagnosis of Campylobacter enteritis if the characteristic darting motility of the Campylobacter organism is seen. 145,238

People infected with C. jejuni who are ill enough to seek medical attention and from whom a fecal culture is obtained represent only a subset of all those infected. Nevertheless, even among these patients, fewer than half are candidates for specific antimicrobial therapy. 143 In a meta-analysis of 11 small randomized trials, antimicrobial agents reduced the duration of intestinal symptoms by approximately 1.3 days. 240 Because the greatest therapeutic benefit occurs when antimicrobial therapy is started early, the rapid presumptive diagnosis of Campylobacter infection by means of direct visualization of the organisms in stool is clinically relevant

Treatment with antibiotics seems prudent in those patients with high fever, bloody diarrhea, or more than eight stools per day; in patients whose symptoms have not lessened or are worsening at the time the diagnosis is made; or in those in whom symptoms have persisted for more than 1 week. 241

In vitro, C. jejuni is susceptible to a wide variety of antimicrobial agents, including erythromycin, macrolides, the tetracyclines, the aminoglycosides, chloramphenicol, the quinolones, the nitrofurans, and clindamycin. 242,243

Erythromycin was once considered the agent of choice; however, because erythromycin, is primarily metabolized by cytochrome P-450 isoenzyme 3A4, there is a slight risk for sudden cardiac death. Therefore this agent is no longer recommended.

We agree with the recommendation made in the 2017 Infectious Diseases Society of America guidelines that first-line therapy is either a macrolide or a fluoroquinolone. 244 Therapy with extended-spectrum macrolides such as clarithromycin or azithromycin should be equally effective. 245

The recommended dosage of azithromycin is 500 mg orally daily for 3 days; a single dose of 1000 mg may be equally effective, although this dosage is associated with more nausea. In children, the recommended dosage of azithromycin is 10 mg/kg per day for 3 days.

The dosage of ciprofloxacin is 500 mg orally twice daily for 5 to 7 days, 246 although as with azithromycin, a single dose (750 mg) may be just as effective. 247

Fluoroquinolones have the advantage of possessing activity across a broad spectrum of bacteria causing diarrheal illness, including Campylobacter spp. However, fluoroquinolones should be used with caution because rising rates of resistance to these agents have limited their usefulness in treating Campylobacter infections (see later section on “Resistance to Fluoroquinolones”).

Most C. jejuni and C. coli isolates are not susceptible to most cephalosporins or penicillin, and these agents should not be used. However, amoxicillin or ticarcillin plus clavulanic acid appears to be universally effective. 248

Some macrolide- and fluoroquinolone-resistant C. coli strains may be susceptible to fosfo- mycin. 249 Susceptibility to sulfonamides and metronidazole is variable

Unlike in Salmonella infections, treatment with antimicrobial agents does not prolong carriage of C. jejuni; on the contrary, erythromycin eliminates carriage within 72 hours in most patients. 242

Use of an antimotility agent appears to prolong duration of symptoms and has been associated with fatalities. 251

H. cinaedi and those Campylobacter strains acquired in developing countries, especially C. coli, are more likely to be resistant to macrolides and tetracycline. 250 In such cases, when treatment is indicated, alterna- tive agents should be used until susceptibility is known.

Systemic C. fetus infections should be treated parenterally, but erythromycin should not be used. 253,254

Patients with endovascular infections caused by C. fetus require at least 4 weeks of therapy, and gentamicin or ampicillin is probably the agent of choice. 254 Treatment with imipenem or meropenem constitutes another alternative.

Campylobacter species are often naturally transformable organisms, allowing for the acquisition of resistance genes from other Campylobacter spp. as well as other gram-positive and gram-negative organisms. 255,256

In 2013, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention designated Campylobacter as a microorganism with a serious antibiotic resistance threat. 277 This was driven principally by the increase in fluoroquinolone resistance observed in C. jejuni from 15% in 1998 to 25% in 2015. 278

Resistance rates in certain parts of the world are much higher than in the United States—as high as 75% in travelers to Asia 279 —highlighting the need for an accurate travel history when assessing the traveler with diarrhea.

In 2004, the US Food and Drug Administra- tion reversed its prior approval for the therapeutic use of the veterinary fluoroquinolone enrofloxacin because of the concern that the observed increase in fluoroquinolone resistance in human isolates was due to an increase in fluoroquinolone-resistant poultry isolates. 276,280

Only approximately 2% to 3% of US isolates are resistant to azithromycin, and so macrolides are the first-line therapies. 244 Unfortunately, macrolide resistance rates are much higher in parts of Asia and Africa; for example, in studies in South Africa and Nigeria, 80% or more of isolates were resistant to macrolides. 281,282

Resistance in Campylobacter occurs most commonly via a Thr-86-Ile substitution in the quinolone resistance-determining region (QRDR) of gyrA. Unlike fluoroquinolone resistance in Salmonella and E. coli, this single mutation confers high-level resistance to nalidixic acid and fluoroquinolones. 258 Because only the single Thr-86-Ile mutation is needed to mediate high-level resistance and does so without an appar- ent (or large) fitness cost, fluoroquinolone resistance appears quickly in animals and humans. 285–288

The low spontaneous mutation rate of the 23S rRNA genes (approximately 10 −10 per cell per generation) contributes to the apparent higher barrier to the emergence of resistance compared with fluoroquinolones. 295 In another contrast to fluoroquinolone resistance, competition experiments suggest that macrolide resistance imparts a fitness cost. 301–305

The “reactive arthritis,” formerly called Reiter syndrome, occurring in human leukocyte antigen HLA-B27–positive people closely resembles that seen after Yersinia, Salmonella, or Shigella infections and is not specific to C. jejuni infection. However, rheumatologic symptoms may persist for several months or possibly for years in a few affected people.

GBS is an uncommon sequela of Campylobacter enteritis, but because of their high prevalence, Campylobacter infections are the most important recognized antecedent of this clinically devastating disorder.

C. fetus infection may be lethal to patients with chronic compensated diseases such as cirrhosis or diabetes mellitus or may hasten the demise of seriously immunocompromised patients. For immunocompromised hosts with systemic C. fetus infections, prognosis is most dependent on the rapidity with which appropriate antimicrobial therapy is begun

Previously healthy people infected with C. fetus usually survive the illness without permanent sequelae.

Because most human Campylobacter infections are acquired from consumption or handling of poultry, thorough cooking of chicken and other poultry products is an important step in preventing transmission of infection to people. Furthermore, meticulous attention to avoiding cross-contamination of utensils and cutting boards during food prepara- tion also may reduce the risk of infection. Elimination or reduction of use of antibiotics in animals used for food production may reduce the rate of antibiotic resistance among Campylobacter species

Finally, because C. jejuni infections are “accidentally” acquired by humans, and because there is evidence for the natural development of immunity among people in developing countries, the goal of producing a vaccine is probably achievable

Campylobacter en "vol de mouette"

The name Campylobacter is derived from the Greek campylos, meaning “curved”, and baktron, meaning “rod”.

After the recognition of Campylobacter jejuni as a major human pathogen, numerous related Campylobacter, Arcobacter, and Helicobacter species have been identified.

Campylobacter organisms are motile, non–spore-forming, comma-shaped, gram-negative rods. 3

Originally isolated from aborted sheep fetuses in 1909, these and similar organisms were considered subspecies of Vibrio fetus. However, because these organisms did not ferment carbohydrates and differed in their guanine plus cytosine (G + C) DNA content from true members of the genus Vibrio, a new genus, Campylobacter, was created.

The prototype for enteric infection is C. jejuni; for extraintestinal infection it is Campylobacter fetus (Tabl e 216 .2 ). Because the organisms causing enteric and extraintestinal illnesses are generally the same, they are considered together in the following discussion.

Campylobacters and related organisms grow best in an atmosphere containing 5% to 10% oxygen and are thus considered microaerophilic. 3,4

All cam- pylobacters grow at 37°C; however, C. jejuni grows best at 42°C. Because C. jejuni is the most common enteric pathogen of humans, many labo- ratories have used incubation at 42°C for optimal isolation; however, use of this temperature will not permit detection of infections by many of the related species. In particular, Campylobacter upsaliensis may be missed.

Campylobacter spp. multiply more slowly than do the usual bacteria of the enteric flora and therefore cannot be isolated from fecal specimens unless selective techniques are used.

Filtration methods permit isolation without use of antibiotic-containing media. It is now clear that use of filtration tech- niques and nonselective rich media such as chocolate agar, with incuba- tion of plates at 37°C, improves stool culture yields of both C. jejuni and the “atypical” enteric Campylobacter spp. 11,12