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Annotation 1363744787724

#contract #law #terms

The classification of the terms implied by the SGA 1979 ss 13–15 (but note not s 12) as conditions has been altered as a result of s 15A, which was incorporated into the SGA 1979 by virtue of s 4 of the Sale and Supply of Goods Act 1994.

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organisations or groups can only bring an action when they are claiming that their rights (as distinct legal persons) have been violated. For instance, a non-governmental organisation (NGO) cannot bring actions on behalf of people whose rights may have been violated by a contracting state. It can only bring an action when it can claim that a state is violating the rights that it enjoys itself as an organisation. Thus in [ case ], the NGO successfully complained that the interception of its communications under the Interception of Communications Act 1985, s 3(2) conferred a virtually unfettered discretion on the Ministry of Defence, which represented a breach of the ECHR, art 8.

Answer

Liberty v UK (2009) 48 EHRR 1

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on (NGO) cannot bring actions on behalf of people whose rights may have been violated by a contracting state. It can only bring an action when it can claim that a state is violating the rights that it enjoys itself as an organisation. Thus in Liberty v UK (2009) 48 EHRR 1, the NGO successfully complained that the interception of its communications under the Interception of Communications Act 1985, s 3(2) conferred a virtually unfettered discretion on the

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organisations or groups can only bring an action when they are claiming that their rights (as distinct legal persons) have been violated. For instance, a non-governmental organisation (NGO) cannot bring actions on behalf of people whose rights may have been violated by a contracting state. It can only bring an action when [...]. Thus in Liberty v UK (2009) 48 EHRR 1, the NGO successfully complained that the interception of its communications under the Interception of Communications Act 1985, s 3(2) conferred a virtually unfettered discretion on the Ministry of Defence, which represented a breach of the ECHR, art 8.

Answer

it can claim that a state is violating the rights that it enjoys itself as an organisation

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r rights (as distinct legal persons) have been violated. For instance, a non-governmental organisation (NGO) cannot bring actions on behalf of people whose rights may have been violated by a contracting state. It can only bring an action when it can claim that a state is violating the rights that it enjoys itself as an organisation. Thus in Liberty v UK (2009) 48 EHRR 1, the NGO successfully complained that the interception of its communications under the Interception of Communications Act 1985, s 3(2) conferred a

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the concept of what a 'person' is has raised some difficult issues for the ECtHR. The question of the 'right to life' of the foetus in relation to the ECHR, art 2 has proven almost impossible to resolve, and the court has arguably avoided the issue in order to take account of regional and religious sensitivities relating to abortion: [ case ].

Answer

Vô v France (2005) 40 EHRR 12

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n of the 'right to life' of the foetus in relation to the ECHR, art 2 has proven almost impossible to resolve, and the court has arguably avoided the issue in order to take account of regional and religious sensitivities relating to abortion: Vô v France (2005) 40 EHRR 12.<body><html>

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Answer

take account of regional and religious sensitivities relating to abortion

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t a 'person' is has raised some difficult issues for the ECtHR. The question of the 'right to life' of the foetus in relation to the ECHR, art 2 has proven almost impossible to resolve, and the court has arguably avoided the issue in order to take account of regional and religious sensitivities relating to abortion: Vô v France (2005) 40 EHRR 12.<body><html>

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The [ statute ] sets out eight criteria for admissibility. These are largely procedural. The only requirement of any significance is that domestic remedies must be exhausted before an ECHR action can be brought.

Answer

ECHR, art 35

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The ECHR, art 35 sets out eight criteria for admissibility. These are largely procedural. The only requirement of any significance is that domestic remedies must be exhausted before an ECHR action can be

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The ECHR, art [...] sets out eight criteria for admissibility. These are largely procedural. The only requirement of any significance is that domestic remedies must be exhausted before an ECHR action can be brought.

Answer

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The ECHR, art 35 sets out eight criteria for admissibility. These are largely procedural. The only requirement of any significance is that [...].

Answer

domestic remedies must be exhausted before an ECHR action can be brought

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In [ case ], the phrase 'threatening the life of the nation' in the ECHR, art 15(1) was interpreted as referring to:

'… an exceptional situation of crisis or emergency which affects the whole population and constitutes a threat to the organised life of the community of which the State is composed.'

Answer

Lawless v Ireland (1979-80) 1 EHRR 15

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In Lawless v Ireland (1979-80) 1 EHRR 15, the phrase 'threatening the life of the nation' in the ECHR, art [...] was interpreted as referring to:

'… an exceptional situation of crisis or emergency which affects the whole population and constitutes a threat to the organised life of the community of which the State is composed.'

Answer

15(1)

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In Lawless v Ireland (1979-80) 1 EHRR 15, the phrase 'threatening the life of the nation' in the ECHR, art 15(1) was interpreted as referring to: '… an exceptional situation of crisis or emergency which affects the whole population and constitutes a threat to the organised life of the

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In Lawless v Ireland (1979-80) 1 EHRR 15, the phrase 'threatening the life of the nation' in the [ statute ] was interpreted as referring to:

'… an exceptional situation of crisis or emergency which affects the whole population and constitutes a threat to the organised life of the community of which the State is composed.'

Answer

ECHR, art 15(1)

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In Lawless v Ireland (1979-80) 1 EHRR 15, the phrase 'threatening the life of the nation' in the ECHR, art 15(1) was interpreted as referring to:

'… an [...] which affects the whole population and constitutes a threat to the organised life of the community of which the State is composed.'

Answer

exceptional situation of crisis or emergency

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In Lawless v Ireland (1979-80) 1 EHRR 15, the phrase 'threatening the life of the nation' in the ECHR, art 15(1) was interpreted as referring to:

'… an exceptional situation of crisis or emergency which [...] and constitutes a threat to the organised life of the community of which the State is composed.'

Answer

affects the whole population

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d><head>In Lawless v Ireland (1979-80) 1 EHRR 15, the phrase 'threatening the life of the nation' in the ECHR, art 15(1) was interpreted as referring to: '… an exceptional situation of crisis or emergency which affects the whole population and constitutes a threat to the organised life of the community of which the State is composed.' <html>

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In Lawless v Ireland (1979-80) 1 EHRR 15, the phrase 'threatening the life of the nation' in the ECHR, art 15(1) was interpreted as referring to:

'… an exceptional situation of crisis or emergency which affects the whole population and [...].'

Answer

constitutes a threat to the organised life of the community of which the State is composed

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less v Ireland (1979-80) 1 EHRR 15, the phrase 'threatening the life of the nation' in the ECHR, art 15(1) was interpreted as referring to: '… an exceptional situation of crisis or emergency which affects the whole population and constitutes a threat to the organised life of the community of which the State is composed.' <body><html>

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In [ case ], the ECtHR said:

'… [I]nherent in the whole of the Convention is a search for a fair balance between the demands of the general interest of the community and the requirements of the protection of the individual's fundamental rights.'

Answer

Soering v UK (1989) 11 EHRR 439

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In Soering v UK (1989) 11 EHRR 439, the ECtHR said: '… [I]nherent in the whole of the Convention is a search for a fair balance between the demands of the general interest of the community and the requiremen

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In Soering v UK (1989) 11 EHRR 439, the ECtHR said:

'… [I]nherent in the whole of the Convention is a search for [...].'

Answer

a fair balance between the demands of the general interest of the community and the requirements of the protection of the individual's fundamental rights

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Certain articles in the ECHR require that interferences made by the state to the relevant rights must be 'prescribed by law' or 'in accordance with the law'. Strasbourg has established an important test for determining this point. First, it must be shown that [...]. The requirement that the respondent state must be able to point toa specific legal rule or regime which authorises its conduct gives the individual protection against arbitrary interferences with relevant rights. Second, as identified by the ECtHR in the Sunday Times v UK (1979-80) 2 EHRR 245 case (discussed in Chapter 12), the identified legal basis must have certain qualities of law. It must be shown that the law is accessible, in that individuals must be able to have an indication that is adequate in the circumstances of the legal rules applicable to a given case. In addition, it must be shown that the legal basis is sufficiently clear. Furthermore, it must be shown that the legal basis is formulated in such a way that a person can foresee, to a degree that is reasonable in the circumstances, the consequences which a given action will entail.

Answer

the interference with the Convention right has some basis in national law

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in the ECHR require that interferences made by the state to the relevant rights must be 'prescribed by law' or 'in accordance with the law'. Strasbourg has established an important test for determining this point. First, it must be shown that the interference with the Convention right has some basis in national law. The requirement that the respondent state must be able to point toa specific legal rule or regime which authorises its conduct gives the individual protection against arbitrary interfe

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Certain articles in the ECHR require that interferences made by the state to the relevant rights must be 'prescribed by law' or 'in accordance with the law'. Strasbourg has established an important test for determining this point. First, it must be shown that the interference with the Convention right has some basis in national law. The requirement that the respondent state must be able to point toa specific legal rule or regime which authorises its conduct gives the individual protection against arbitrary interferences with relevant rights. Second, as identified by the ECtHR in the [ case ] case (discussed in Chapter 12), the identified legal basis must have certain qualities of law. It must be shown that the law is accessible, in that individuals must be able to have an indication that is adequate in the circumstances of the legal rules applicable to a given case. In addition, it must be shown that the legal basis is sufficiently clear. Furthermore, it must be shown that the legal basis is formulated in such a way that a person can foresee, to a degree that is reasonable in the circumstances, the consequences which a given action will entail.

Answer

Sunday Times v UK (1979-80) 2 EHRR 245

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ent that the respondent state must be able to point toa specific legal rule or regime which authorises its conduct gives the individual protection against arbitrary interferences with relevant rights. Second, as identified by the ECtHR in the Sunday Times v UK (1979-80) 2 EHRR 245 case (discussed in Chapter 12), the identified legal basis must have certain qualities of law. It must be shown that the law is accessible, in that individuals must be able to have an in

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Certain articles in the ECHR require that interferences made by the state to the relevant rights must be 'prescribed by law' or 'in accordance with the law'. Strasbourg has established an important test for determining this point. First, it must be shown that the interference with the Convention right has some basis in national law. The requirement that the respondent state must be able to point toa specific legal rule or regime which authorises its conduct gives the individual protection against arbitrary interferences with relevant rights. Second, as identified by the ECtHR in the Sunday Times v UK (1979-80) 2 EHRR 245 case (discussed in Chapter 12), the identified legal basis must have certain qualities of law. It must be shown that [...], in that individuals must be able to have an indication that is adequate in the circumstances of the legal rules applicable to a given case. In addition, it must be shown that the legal basis is sufficiently clear. Furthermore, it must be shown that the legal basis is formulated in such a way that a person can foresee, to a degree that is reasonable in the circumstances, the consequences which a given action will entail.

Answer

the law is accessible

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rbitrary interferences with relevant rights. Second, as identified by the ECtHR in the Sunday Times v UK (1979-80) 2 EHRR 245 case (discussed in Chapter 12), the identified legal basis must have certain qualities of law. It must be shown that the law is accessible, in that individuals must be able to have an indication that is adequate in the circumstances of the legal rules applicable to a given case. In addition, it must be shown that the legal

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Certain articles in the ECHR require that interferences made by the state to the relevant rights must be 'prescribed by law' or 'in accordance with the law'. Strasbourg has established an important test for determining this point. First, it must be shown that the interference with the Convention right has some basis in national law. The requirement that the respondent state must be able to point toa specific legal rule or regime which authorises its conduct gives the individual protection against arbitrary interferences with relevant rights. Second, as identified by the ECtHR in the Sunday Times v UK (1979-80) 2 EHRR 245 case (discussed in Chapter 12), the identified legal basis must have certain qualities of law. It must be shown that the law is accessible, in that individuals must be able to have an indication that is adequate in the circumstances of the legal rules applicable to a given case. In addition, it must be shown that the legal basis is [...]. Furthermore, it must be shown that the legal basis is formulated in such a way that a person can foresee, to a degree that is reasonable in the circumstances, the consequences which a given action will entail.

Answer

sufficiently clear

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aw. It must be shown that the law is accessible, in that individuals must be able to have an indication that is adequate in the circumstances of the legal rules applicable to a given case. In addition, it must be shown that the legal basis is sufficiently clear. Furthermore, it must be shown that the legal basis is formulated in such a way that a person can foresee, to a degree that is reasonable in the circumstances, the consequences which a

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Certain articles in the ECHR require that interferences made by the state to the relevant rights must be 'prescribed by law' or 'in accordance with the law'. Strasbourg has established an important test for determining this point. First, it must be shown that the interference with the Convention right has some basis in national law. The requirement that the respondent state must be able to point toa specific legal rule or regime which authorises its conduct gives the individual protection against arbitrary interferences with relevant rights. Second, as identified by the ECtHR in the Sunday Times v UK (1979-80) 2 EHRR 245 case (discussed in Chapter 12), the identified legal basis must have certain qualities of law. It must be shown that the law is accessible, in that individuals must be able to have an indication that is adequate in the circumstances of the legal rules applicable to a given case. In addition, it must be shown that the legal basis is sufficiently clear. Furthermore, it must be shown that the legal basis is [...].

Answer

formulated in such a way that a person can foresee, to a degree that is reasonable in the circumstances, the consequences which a given action will entail

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be able to have an indication that is adequate in the circumstances of the legal rules applicable to a given case. In addition, it must be shown that the legal basis is sufficiently clear. Furthermore, it must be shown that the legal basis is formulated in such a way that a person can foresee, to a degree that is reasonable in the circumstances, the consequences which a given action will entail.<body><html>

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The applicants were brought before a magistrates' court, where they were bound over to keep the peace following their disruption of a fox hunt. Here, the binding over orders were not imposed as a sanction for past unlawful conduct, and it could not therefore be said that what the applicants were being bound over not to do would have been apparent to them. The Strasbourg court therefore held that there had been a breach of the ECHR, art 10, on the basis that the interference had not been prescribed by law.

Answer

Hashman and Harrup v UK (2000) 30 EHRR 241

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Conversely, in Hashman and Harrup v UK (2000) 30 EHRR 241, the applicants were brought before a magistrates' court, where they were bound over to keep the peace following their disruption of a fox hunt. Here, the binding over orders were not i

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Hashman and Harrup v UK (2000) 30 EHRR 241

Answer

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Conversely, in Hashman and Harrup v UK (2000) 30 EHRR 241, the applicants were brought before a magistrates' court, where they were bound over to keep the peace following their disruption of a fox hunt. Here, [...]. The Strasbourg court therefore held that there had been a breach of the ECHR, art 10, on the basis that the interference had not been prescribed by law.

Answer

the binding over orders were not imposed as a sanction for past unlawful conduct, and it could not therefore be said that what the applicants were being bound over not to do would have been apparent to them

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ml>Conversely, in Hashman and Harrup v UK (2000) 30 EHRR 241, the applicants were brought before a magistrates' court, where they were bound over to keep the peace following their disruption of a fox hunt. Here, the binding over orders were not imposed as a sanction for past unlawful conduct, and it could not therefore be said that what the applicants were being bound over not to do would have been apparent to them. The Strasbourg court therefore held that there had been a breach of the ECHR, art 10, on the basis that the interference had not been prescribed by law.<html>

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Conversely, in Hashman and Harrup v UK (2000) 30 EHRR 241, the applicants were brought before a magistrates' court, where they were bound over to keep the peace following their disruption of a fox hunt. Here, the binding over orders were not imposed as a sanction for past unlawful conduct, and it could not therefore be said that what the applicants were being bound over not to do would have been apparent to them. The Strasbourg court therefore held that there had been a breach of the ECHR, art 10, on the basis that [...].

Answer

the interference had not been prescribed by law

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ful conduct, and it could not therefore be said that what the applicants were being bound over not to do would have been apparent to them. The Strasbourg court therefore held that there had been a breach of the ECHR, art 10, on the basis that the interference had not been prescribed by law.<body><html>

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under the [ statute ]: ‘any person, non-governmental organisation or group of individuals claiming to be a victim of a violation' of a Convention right by a contracting state may bring an application against that state before the ECtHR. Note that under the terms of the ECHR, art 1, there is no requirement of citizenship of a signatory state; the test is whether the person is within the jurisdiction of the state. For example, an American tourist in the UK could be a victim under the Convention.

Answer

ECHR, art 34

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under the ECHR, art 34: ‘any person, non-governmental organisation or group of individuals [...]' of a Convention right by a contracting state may bring an application against that state before the ECtHR. Note that under the terms of the ECHR, art 1, there is no requirement of citizenship of a signatory state; the test is whether the person is within the jurisdiction of the state. For example, an American tourist in the UK could be a victim under the Convention.

Answer

claiming to be a victim of a violation

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under the ECHR, art 34: ‘any person, non-governmental organisation or group of individuals claiming to be a victim of a violation' of a Convention right by a contracting state may bring an application against that state before the ECtHR. Note that under the terms of the ECHR, art 1, there is no requirement of citi

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under the ECHR, art 34: ‘[...] claiming to be a victim of a violation' of a Convention right by a contracting state may bring an application against that state before the ECtHR. Note that under the terms of the ECHR, art 1, there is no requirement of citizenship of a signatory state; the test is whether the person is within the jurisdiction of the state. For example, an American tourist in the UK could be a victim under the Convention.

Answer

any person, non-governmental organisation or group of individuals

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under the ECHR, art 34: ‘any person, non-governmental organisation or group of individuals claiming to be a victim of a violation' of a Convention right by a contracting state may bring an application against that state before the ECtHR. Note that under the terms of the [ statute ], there is no requirement of citizenship of a signatory state; the test is whether the person is within the jurisdiction of the state. For example, an American tourist in the UK could be a victim under the Convention.

Answer

ECHR, art 1

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person, non-governmental organisation or group of individuals claiming to be a victim of a violation' of a Convention right by a contracting state may bring an application against that state before the ECtHR. Note that under the terms of the ECHR, art 1, there is no requirement of citizenship of a signatory state; the test is whether the person is within the jurisdiction of the state. For example, an American tourist in the UK could be

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Exceptionally, a person can make a claim for acts that have occurred outside the geographical jurisdiction of a contracting state. In [ case ], which concerned the bombing of Belgrade by NATO forces, the Grand Chamber of the ECtHR observed that, while the ECHR, art 1 reflects an essentially territorial notion of jurisdiction, extra-territorial jurisdiction could be recognised in some very limited circumstances.

Answer

Bankovic v Belgium (2001) 11 BHRC 435

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Exceptionally, a person can make a claim for acts that have occurred outside the geographical jurisdiction of a contracting state. In Bankovic v Belgium (2001) 11 BHRC 435, which concerned the bombing of Belgrade by NATO forces, the Grand Chamber of the ECtHR observed that, while the ECHR, art 1 reflects an essentially territorial notion of jurisdiction,

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Exceptionally, a person can make a claim for [...]. In Bankovic v Belgium (2001) 11 BHRC 435, which concerned the bombing of Belgrade by NATO forces, the Grand Chamber of the ECtHR observed that, while the ECHR, art 1 reflects an essentially territorial notion of jurisdiction, extra-territorial jurisdiction could be recognised in some very limited circumstances.

Answer

acts that have occurred outside the geographical jurisdiction of a contracting state

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Before the ECtHR in [ case ], however, the scope of jurisdiction was widened quite significantly when the Grand Chamber determined that jurisdiction under the ECHR, art 1 (and a subsequent violation of the ECHR, art 2) also applied in respect of the other five deaths. The court was satisfied that, in the special circumstances which applied in Iraq in 2003–4, when the UK and USA were effectively occupying powers with responsibility for security, the extent of control and power exercised by the UK military was sufficient to render the actions of its armed forces subject to regulation under the ECHR, whether on or off base.

Answer

Al-Skeini and Others v UK [2011] ECHR 55721/07

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Before the ECtHR in Al-Skeini and Others v UK [2011] ECHR 55721/07, however, the scope of jurisdiction was widened quite significantly when the Grand Chamber determined that jurisdiction under the ECHR, art 1 (and a subsequent violation of the ECHR, ar

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Before the ECtHR in Al-Skeini and Others v UK [2011] ECHR 55721/07, however, the scope of jurisdiction was widened quite significantly when the Grand Chamber determined that jurisdiction under the ECHR, art 1 (and a subsequent violation of the ECHR, art 2) also applied in respect of the other five deaths. The court was satisfied that, in the special circumstances which applied in Iraq in 2003–4, when the UK and USA were effectively occupying powers with responsibility for security, the [...] was sufficient to render the actions of its armed forces subject to regulation under the ECHR, whether on or off base.

Answer

extent of control and power exercised by the UK military

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, art 2) also applied in respect of the other five deaths. The court was satisfied that, in the special circumstances which applied in Iraq in 2003–4, when the UK and USA were effectively occupying powers with responsibility for security, the extent of control and power exercised by the UK military was sufficient to render the actions of its armed forces subject to regulation under the ECHR, whether on or off base.<body><html>

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Before the ECtHR in Al-Skeini and Others v UK [2011] ECHR 55721/07, however, the scope of jurisdiction was widened quite significantly when the Grand Chamber determined that jurisdiction under the ECHR, art 1 (and a subsequent violation of the ECHR, art 2) also applied in respect of the other five deaths. The court was satisfied that, in the special circumstances which applied in Iraq in 2003–4, when the UK and USA were effectively occupying powers with responsibility for security, the extent of control and power exercised by the UK military was [...].

Answer

sufficient to render the actions of its armed forces subject to regulation under the ECHR, whether on or off base

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e court was satisfied that, in the special circumstances which applied in Iraq in 2003–4, when the UK and USA were effectively occupying powers with responsibility for security, the extent of control and power exercised by the UK military was sufficient to render the actions of its armed forces subject to regulation under the ECHR, whether on or off base.<body><html>

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In the conjoined appeals of [ case ], however, the Supreme Court unanimously decided that the so-called 'Snatch Land Rover claims', similarly relating to the deaths of British servicemen operating in the field of combat in Iraq (in 2005 and 2006), did attract the protection of the Convention. Lord Hope believed that Strasbourg had partly redefined the concept of jurisdiction from the position taken in the Bankovic case to a recognition in Al-Skeini v UK that the key element was the degree of control and authority exercised by the relevant state over the individual. When considering the way in which the armed forces operate, he held that serviceman relinquish almost total control over their lives to the state. Accordingly, deaths of servicemen in the battlefield fall within the jurisdiction of the ECHR, art 1, regardless of whether they are operating in areas not under the control of the contracting state.

Answer

Smith, Ellis and Allbutt v Ministry of Defence [2013] UKSC 41

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In the conjoined appeals of Smith, Ellis and Allbutt v Ministry of Defence [2013] UKSC 41, however, the Supreme Court unanimously decided that the so-called 'Snatch Land Rover claims', similarly relating to the deaths of British servicemen operating in the field of combat in

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In the conjoined appeals of Smith, Ellis and Allbutt v Ministry of Defence [2013] UKSC 41, however, the Supreme Court unanimously decided that the so-called 'Snatch Land Rover claims', similarly relating to the deaths of British servicemen operating in the field of combat in Iraq (in 2005 and 2006), did attract the protection of the Convention. Lord Hope believed that Strasbourg had partly redefined the concept of jurisdiction from the position taken in the Bankovic case to a recognition in Al-Skeini v UK that the key element was [...]. When considering the way in which the armed forces operate, he held that serviceman relinquish almost total control over their lives to the state. Accordingly, deaths of servicemen in the battlefield fall within the jurisdiction of the ECHR, art 1, regardless of whether they are operating in areas not under the control of the contracting state.

Answer

the degree of control and authority exercised by the relevant state over the individual

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2006), did attract the protection of the Convention. Lord Hope believed that Strasbourg had partly redefined the concept of jurisdiction from the position taken in the Bankovic case to a recognition in Al-Skeini v UK that the key element was the degree of control and authority exercised by the relevant state over the individual. When considering the way in which the armed forces operate, he held that serviceman relinquish almost total control over their lives to the state. Accordingly, deaths of servicemen in

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In the conjoined appeals of Smith, Ellis and Allbutt v Ministry of Defence [2013] UKSC 41, however, the Supreme Court unanimously decided that the so-called 'Snatch Land Rover claims', similarly relating to the deaths of British servicemen operating in the field of combat in Iraq (in 2005 and 2006), did attract the protection of the Convention. Lord Hope believed that Strasbourg had partly redefined the concept of jurisdiction from the position taken in the Bankovic case to a recognition in Al-Skeini v UK that the key element was the degree of control and authority exercised by the relevant state over the individual. When considering the way in which the armed forces operate, he held that serviceman relinquish almost total control over their lives to the state. Accordingly, [...].

Answer

deaths of servicemen in the battlefield fall within the jurisdiction of the ECHR, art 1, regardless of whether they are operating in areas not under the control of the contracting state

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gree of control and authority exercised by the relevant state over the individual. When considering the way in which the armed forces operate, he held that serviceman relinquish almost total control over their lives to the state. Accordingly, deaths of servicemen in the battlefield fall within the jurisdiction of the ECHR, art 1, regardless of whether they are operating in areas not under the control of the contracting state.<body><html>

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As far as standing is concerned, applicants must show that [...] in order to be a 'victim' for the purposes of the ECHR, art 34: Klass v Germany (1978) 2 EHRR 214.

Answer

they are directly affected by state action or inaction

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As far as standing is concerned, applicants must show that they are directly affected by state action or inaction in order to be a 'victim' for the purposes of the ECHR, art 34: Klass v Germany (1978) 2 EHRR 214.

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As far as standing is concerned, applicants must show that they are directly affected by state action or inaction in order to be a 'victim' for the purposes of the ECHR, art 34: [ case ].

Answer

Klass v Germany (1978) 2 EHRR 214

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Applicants must be a 'person' in the legal sense and therefore can be natural or legal persons, such as corporate bodies (e.g. [ case ]) and certain other organisations with legal personality, including trade unions and political parties.

Answer

The Sunday Times v UK (1979)

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Applicants must be a 'person' in the legal sense and therefore can be natural or legal persons, such as corporate bodies (e.g. The Sunday Times v UK (1979)) and certain other organisations with legal personality, including trade unions and political parties.

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An applicant may, however, be an indirect victim of a violation in exceptional circumstances, for instance [...].

Answer

close relatives of a deceased where complainants allege a violation of the right to life

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An applicant may, however, be an indirect victim of a violation in exceptional circumstances, for instance close relatives of a deceased where complainants allege a violation of the right to life.

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[ case ], where the lack of a specific criminal sanction in Dutch law allowed a man to evade conviction for the sexual assault of a girl with learning difficulties. The respondent state was held to have breached its positive obligation under the ECHR, art 8.

Answer

X and Y v The Netherlands [1985] ECHR 4

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X and Y v The Netherlands [1985] ECHR 4, where the lack of a specific criminal sanction in Dutch law allowed a man to evade conviction for the sexual assault of a girl with learning difficulties. The respondent state was held

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X and Y v The Netherlands [1985] ECHR 4, where the lack of a specific criminal sanction in Dutch law allowed a man to evade conviction for the sexual assault of a girl with learning difficulties. The respondent state was held [...].

Answer

to have breached its positive obligation under the ECHR, art 8

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body>X and Y v The Netherlands [1985] ECHR 4, where the lack of a specific criminal sanction in Dutch law allowed a man to evade conviction for the sexual assault of a girl with learning difficulties. The respondent state was held to have breached its positive obligation under the ECHR, art 8.<body><html>

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In [ case ] it was held that the positive obligation on the state was for its authorities (in this case the police) to take preventative measures to protect an individual whose life was at risk from the criminal acts of another private individual. However, the court stated that this obligation on the authorities was subject to the following conditions:

'[I]t must be established … that the authorities knew or ought to have known at the time of the existence of a real and immediate risk to the life of an identified individual or individuals from the criminal acts of a third party and that they failed to take measures within the scope of their powers which, judged reasonably, might have been expected to avoid that risk.'

The court also acknowledged, in view of the operational choices that must be made in terms of priorities and resources, that the positive obligation must be interpreted in a way which does not impose an excessive burden on states and public authorities.

Answer

Osman v UK, (2000) 29 EHRR 245

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In Osman v UK, (2000) 29 EHRR 245 it was held that the positive obligation on the state was for its authorities (in this case the police) to take preventative measures to protect an individual whose life was at risk from

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In Osman v UK, (2000) 29 EHRR 245 it was held that the positive obligation on the state was for its authorities (in this case the police) to take preventative measures to protect an individual whose life was at risk from the criminal acts of another private individual. However, the court stated that this obligation on the authorities was subject to the following conditions:

'[I]t must be established … that the authorities [...] of the existence of a real and immediate risk to the life of an identified individual or individuals from the criminal acts of a third party and that they failed to take measures within the scope of their powers which, judged reasonably, might have been expected to avoid that risk.'

Answer

knew or ought to have known at the time

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se life was at risk from the criminal acts of another private individual. However, the court stated that this obligation on the authorities was subject to the following conditions: '[I]t must be established … that the authorities knew or ought to have known at the time of the existence of a real and immediate risk to the life of an identified individual or individuals from the criminal acts of a third party and that they failed to take measures within

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'[I]t must be established … that the authorities knew or ought to have known at the time of [...] of an identified individual or individuals from the criminal acts of a third party and that they failed to take measures within the scope of their powers which, judged reasonably, might have been expected to avoid that risk.'

Answer

the existence of a real and immediate risk to the life

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of another private individual. However, the court stated that this obligation on the authorities was subject to the following conditions: '[I]t must be established … that the authorities knew or ought to have known at the time of the existence of a real and immediate risk to the life of an identified individual or individuals from the criminal acts of a third party and that they failed to take measures within the scope of their powers which, judged reasonably, might

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'[I]t must be established … that the authorities knew or ought to have known at the time of the existence of a real and immediate risk to the life of [...] from the criminal acts of a third party and that they failed to take measures within the scope of their powers which, judged reasonably, might have been expected to avoid that risk.'

Answer

an identified individual or individuals

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hat this obligation on the authorities was subject to the following conditions: '[I]t must be established … that the authorities knew or ought to have known at the time of the existence of a real and immediate risk to the life of an identified individual or individuals from the criminal acts of a third party and that they failed to take measures within the scope of their powers which, judged reasonably, might have been expected to avoid that risk.' &#1

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'[I]t must be established … that the authorities knew or ought to have known at the time of the existence of a real and immediate risk to the life of an identified individual or individuals from [...] and that they failed to take measures within the scope of their powers which, judged reasonably, might have been expected to avoid that risk.'

Answer

the criminal acts of a third party

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bject to the following conditions: '[I]t must be established … that the authorities knew or ought to have known at the time of the existence of a real and immediate risk to the life of an identified individual or individuals from the criminal acts of a third party and that they failed to take measures within the scope of their powers which, judged reasonably, might have been expected to avoid that risk.' The court also acknowledged, i

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'[I]t must be established … that the authorities knew or ought to have known at the time of the existence of a real and immediate risk to the life of an identified individual or individuals from the criminal acts of a third party and that [...].'

Answer

they failed to take measures within the scope of their powers which, judged reasonably, might have been expected to avoid that risk

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3; '[I]t must be established … that the authorities knew or ought to have known at the time of the existence of a real and immediate risk to the life of an identified individual or individuals from the criminal acts of a third party and that they failed to take measures within the scope of their powers which, judged reasonably, might have been expected to avoid that risk.' The court also acknowledged, in view of the operational choices that must be made in terms of priorities and resources, that the positive obligation must be interpreted i

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The UK has a reservation to the ECHR, art 2 of the First Protocol to the Convention (the 'right to education'). Note that, as with derogations, the ECtHR will not always passively accept a reservation. In [ case ], the ECtHR removed (or 'severed') elements from a 'declaration' made by the Swiss government that the government claimed amounted to a reservation. This was held to be so vague as to amount to a 'reservation of a general character' (prohibited by the ECHR, art 57).

Answer

Belilos v Switzerland (1988) 10 EHRR 466

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The UK has a reservation to the ECHR, art 2 of the First Protocol to the Convention (the 'right to education'). Note that, as with derogations, the ECtHR will not always passively accept a reservation. In Belilos v Switzerland (1988) 10 EHRR 466, the ECtHR removed (or 'severed') elements from a 'declaration' made by the Swiss government that the government claimed amounted to a reservation. This was held to be so vague as to am

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The UK has a reservation to the ECHR, art 2 of the First Protocol to the Convention (the 'right to education'). Note that, as with derogations, the ECtHR will not always passively accept a reservation. In Belilos v Switzerland (1988) 10 EHRR 466, the ECtHR removed (or 'severed') elements from a 'declaration' made by the Swiss government that the government claimed amounted to a reservation. This was held to be [...] (prohibited by the ECHR, art 57).

Answer

so vague as to amount to a 'reservation of a general character'

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assively accept a reservation. In Belilos v Switzerland (1988) 10 EHRR 466, the ECtHR removed (or 'severed') elements from a 'declaration' made by the Swiss government that the government claimed amounted to a reservation. This was held to be so vague as to amount to a 'reservation of a general character' (prohibited by the ECHR, art 57).<body><html>

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The UK has a reservation to the ECHR, art 2 of the First Protocol to the Convention (the 'right to education'). Note that, as with derogations, the ECtHR will not always passively accept a reservation. In Belilos v Switzerland (1988) 10 EHRR 466, the ECtHR removed (or 'severed') elements from a 'declaration' made by the Swiss government that the government claimed amounted to a reservation. This was held to be so vague as to amount to a 'reservation of a general character' (prohibited by the [ statute ]).

Answer

ECHR, art 57

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HR removed (or 'severed') elements from a 'declaration' made by the Swiss government that the government claimed amounted to a reservation. This was held to be so vague as to amount to a 'reservation of a general character' (prohibited by the ECHR, art 57).<body><html>

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Where a particularly important facet of an individual's existence or identity is in issue, the ECtHR will be less likely to accept that a contracting state should be afforded a broad discretion. In areas of morality, the scope of the margin is likely to be wider, as there is no uniform conception of morality among the contracting states. Similarly, a state is allowed considerable discretion in cases of [...] arising under the ECHR, art 15, and cases involving national security. A further area where a wide margin is given is in respect of measures which require an appreciation of social, economic, and environmental policies, which the national authorities are seen as best placed to assess.

Answer

public emergency

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be afforded a broad discretion. In areas of morality, the scope of the margin is likely to be wider, as there is no uniform conception of morality among the contracting states. Similarly, a state is allowed considerable discretion in cases of public emergency arising under the ECHR, art 15, and cases involving national security. A further area where a wide margin is given is in respect of measures which require an appreciation of social, econ

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Where a particularly important facet of an individual's existence or identity is in issue, the ECtHR will be less likely to accept that a contracting state should be afforded a broad discretion. In areas of morality, the scope of the margin is likely to be wider, as there is no uniform conception of morality among the contracting states. Similarly, a state is allowed considerable discretion in cases of public emergency arising under the [ statute ], and cases involving national security. A further area where a wide margin is given is in respect of measures which require an appreciation of social, economic, and environmental policies, which the national authorities are seen as best placed to assess.

Answer

ECHR, art 15

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areas of morality, the scope of the margin is likely to be wider, as there is no uniform conception of morality among the contracting states. Similarly, a state is allowed considerable discretion in cases of public emergency arising under the ECHR, art 15, and cases involving national security. A further area where a wide margin is given is in respect of measures which require an appreciation of social, economic, and environmental polici

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Where a particularly important facet of an individual's existence or identity is in issue, the ECtHR will be less likely to accept that a contracting state should be afforded a broad discretion. In areas of morality, the scope of the margin is likely to be wider, as there is no uniform conception of morality among the contracting states. Similarly, a state is allowed considerable discretion in cases of public emergency arising under the ECHR, art 15, and cases [...]. A further area where a wide margin is given is in respect of measures which require an appreciation of social, economic, and environmental policies, which the national authorities are seen as best placed to assess.

Answer

involving national security

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cope of the margin is likely to be wider, as there is no uniform conception of morality among the contracting states. Similarly, a state is allowed considerable discretion in cases of public emergency arising under the ECHR, art 15, and cases involving national security. A further area where a wide margin is given is in respect of measures which require an appreciation of social, economic, and environmental policies, which the national authorities are

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Where a particularly important facet of an individual's existence or identity is in issue, the ECtHR will be less likely to accept that a contracting state should be afforded a broad discretion. In areas of morality, the scope of the margin is likely to be wider, as there is no uniform conception of morality among the contracting states. Similarly, a state is allowed considerable discretion in cases of public emergency arising under the ECHR, art 15, and cases involving national security. A further area where a wide margin is given is in respect of measures which require [...], which the national authorities are seen as best placed to assess.

Answer

an appreciation of social, economic, and environmental policies

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tes. Similarly, a state is allowed considerable discretion in cases of public emergency arising under the ECHR, art 15, and cases involving national security. A further area where a wide margin is given is in respect of measures which require an appreciation of social, economic, and environmental policies, which the national authorities are seen as best placed to assess.<body><html>

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The ECHR, arts 8–11 are qualified Convention rights, and require that any restrictions made to these rights must be 'necessary in a democratic society'. In [ case ], Strasbourg held that interferences will be considered necessary in a democratic society if they answer a pressing social need and are proportionate to the legitimate aim pursued.

Answer

Handyside v UK (1976) 1 EHRR 737

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The ECHR, arts 8–11 are qualified Convention rights, and require that any restrictions made to these rights must be 'necessary in a democratic society'. In Handyside v UK (1976) 1 EHRR 737, Strasbourg held that interferences will be considered necessary in a democratic society if they answer a pressing social need and are proportionate to the legitimate aim pursued.

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The ECHR, arts 8–11 are qualified Convention rights, and require that any restrictions made to these rights must be '[...]'. In Handyside v UK (1976) 1 EHRR 737, Strasbourg held that interferences will be considered necessary in a democratic society if they answer a pressing social need and are proportionate to the legitimate aim pursued.

Answer

necessary in a democratic society

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The ECHR, arts 8–11 are qualified Convention rights, and require that any restrictions made to these rights must be 'necessary in a democratic society'. In Handyside v UK (1976) 1 EHRR 737, Strasbourg held that [...].

Answer

interferences will be considered necessary in a democratic society if they answer a pressing social need and are proportionate to the legitimate aim pursued

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>The ECHR, arts 8–11 are qualified Convention rights, and require that any restrictions made to these rights must be 'necessary in a democratic society'. In Handyside v UK (1976) 1 EHRR 737, Strasbourg held that interferences will be considered necessary in a democratic society if they answer a pressing social need and are proportionate to the legitimate aim pursued.<html>

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One variation of the proportionality test involves [...]. Another variation of the test involves considering whether there was an alternative and less intrusive means of achieving the legitimate aim without interfering with the guaranteed right to the same degree.

Answer

balancing the severity of the interference to the Convention right against the legitimate aim for which the interference was made

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One variation of the proportionality test involves balancing the severity of the interference to the Convention right against the legitimate aim for which the interference was made. Another variation of the test involves considering whether there was an alternative and less intrusive means of achieving the legitimate aim without interfering with the guaranteed rig

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One variation of the proportionality test involves balancing the severity of the interference to the Convention right against the legitimate aim for which the interference was made. Another variation of the test involves considering whether there was [...].

Answer

an alternative and less intrusive means of achieving the legitimate aim without interfering with the guaranteed right to the same degree

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ation of the proportionality test involves balancing the severity of the interference to the Convention right against the legitimate aim for which the interference was made. Another variation of the test involves considering whether there was an alternative and less intrusive means of achieving the legitimate aim without interfering with the guaranteed right to the same degree.<body><html>

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Strasbourg declared in [ case ] that:

'For domestic law to meet these requirements [in Sunday Times] it must afford a measure of legal protection against arbitrary interferences by public authorities with the rights safeguarded by the Convention. In matters affecting fundamental rights it would be contrary to the rule of law, one of the basic principles of a democratic society enshrined in the Convention, for a legal discretion granted to the executive to be expressed in terms of an unfettered power. Consequently, the law must indicate with sufficient clarity the scope of any such discretion conferred on the competent authorities and the manner of its exercise.'

Answer

Gillan and Quinton v UK (2010) 50 EHRR 45

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Strasbourg declared in Gillan and Quinton v UK (2010) 50 EHRR 45 that: 'For domestic law to meet these requirements [in Sunday Times] it must afford a measure of legal protection against arbitrary interferences by public authorities with

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Strasbourg declared in Gillan and Quinton v UK (2010) 50 EHRR 45 that:

'For domestic law to meet these requirements [in Sunday Times] it must afford a measure of legal protection against arbitrary interferences by public authorities with the rights safeguarded by the Convention. In matters affecting fundamental rights it would be contrary to the rule of law, one of the basic principles of a democratic society enshrined in the Convention, for a legal discretion granted to the executive to be expressed in terms of an unfettered power. Consequently, the law must indicate [...] conferred on the competent authorities and the manner of its exercise.'

Answer

with sufficient clarity the scope of any such discretion

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contrary to the rule of law, one of the basic principles of a democratic society enshrined in the Convention, for a legal discretion granted to the executive to be expressed in terms of an unfettered power. Consequently, the law must indicate with sufficient clarity the scope of any such discretion conferred on the competent authorities and the manner of its exercise.' <body><html>

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Under the [ statute ], any contracting state may bring an application before the ECtHR against another contracting state.

Answer

ECHR, art 33

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Under the ECHR, art 33, any contracting state may bring an application before the ECtHR against another contracting state.

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A number of important cases have arisen as a result of UK military involvement in Iraq since 2003. In R (on application of Al-Skeini and Others) v Secretary of State for Defence [2007] UKHL 26, the applicants were relatives of six Iraqi civilians who, it was claimed, had been killed by UK armed forces in Basra during 2003. The House of Lords decided at this point that the ECHR would extend to human rights abuses that occur outside the territorial jurisdiction of the United Kingdom in very limited situations. Their Lordships decided that the claims relating to five of the Iraqi civilians, who were all killed in the course of general security operations, could not succeed because [...]. However, the sixth Iraqi citizen, Baha Mousa, came within the jurisdiction of the UK under the ECHR, art 1, as he died as a result of injuries inflicted by UK armed forces personnel inside a detention unit controlled by British forces.

Answer

the UK did not exercise sufficient control over Iraq at the relevant time

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torial jurisdiction of the United Kingdom in very limited situations. Their Lordships decided that the claims relating to five of the Iraqi civilians, who were all killed in the course of general security operations, could not succeed because the UK did not exercise sufficient control over Iraq at the relevant time. However, the sixth Iraqi citizen, Baha Mousa, came within the jurisdiction of the UK under the ECHR, art 1, as he died as a result of injuries inflicted by UK armed forces personnel in

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A number of important cases have arisen as a result of UK military involvement in Iraq since 2003. In R (on application of Al-Skeini and Others) v Secretary of State for Defence [2007] UKHL 26, the applicants were relatives of six Iraqi civilians who, it was claimed, had been killed by UK armed forces in Basra during 2003. The House of Lords decided at this point that the ECHR would extend to human rights abuses that occur outside the territorial jurisdiction of the United Kingdom in very limited situations. Their Lordships decided that the claims relating to five of the Iraqi civilians, who were all killed in the course of general security operations, could not succeed because the UK did not exercise sufficient control over Iraq at the relevant time. However, the sixth Iraqi citizen, Baha Mousa, came within the jurisdiction of the UK under the ECHR, art 1, as [...].

Answer

he died as a result of injuries inflicted by UK armed forces personnel inside a detention unit controlled by British forces

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f general security operations, could not succeed because the UK did not exercise sufficient control over Iraq at the relevant time. However, the sixth Iraqi citizen, Baha Mousa, came within the jurisdiction of the UK under the ECHR, art 1, as he died as a result of injuries inflicted by UK armed forces personnel inside a detention unit controlled by British forces.<body><html>

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The position until recently with regard to rights enjoyed by UK armed forces personnel was more restrictive. The case of [ case ] concerned Private Jason Smith, a Territorial Army soldier, who died of heatstroke while serving in Iraq in 2003. The issue was whether the ECHR applies extra- territorially to protect British troops abroad, specifically when operating in areas not under UK control. If jurisdiction could be established under the ECHR, art 1, the next issue was whether his next of kin could establish a claim in respect of his rights under the ECHR, art 2 against the Ministry of Defence. The majority in the Supreme Court held that the jurisdiction of the ECHR did not extend to protection of Jason Smith's rights under the ECHR, art 2, as he had died as a result of conditions in the field where he was operating in an area seen to be outside UK control.

Answer

R (on application of Smith) v Secretary of State for Defence [2010] UKSC 29

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The position until recently with regard to rights enjoyed by UK armed forces personnel was more restrictive. The case of R (on application of Smith) v Secretary of State for Defence [2010] UKSC 29 concerned Private Jason Smith, a Territorial Army soldier, who died of heatstroke while serving in Iraq in 2003. The issue was whether the ECHR applies extra- territorially to protect Br

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The position until recently with regard to rights enjoyed by UK armed forces personnel was more restrictive. The case of R (on application of Smith) v Secretary of State for Defence [2010] UKSC 29 concerned Private Jason Smith, a Territorial Army soldier, who died of heatstroke while serving in Iraq in 2003. The issue was whether the ECHR applies extra- territorially to protect British troops abroad, specifically when operating in areas not under UK control. If jurisdiction could be established under the ECHR, art 1, the next issue was whether his next of kin could establish a claim in respect of his rights under the ECHR, art 2 against the Ministry of Defence. The majority in the Supreme Court held that [...].

Answer

the jurisdiction of the ECHR did not extend to protection of Jason Smith's rights under the ECHR, art 2, as he had died as a result of conditions in the field where he was operating in an area seen to be outside UK control

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diction could be established under the ECHR, art 1, the next issue was whether his next of kin could establish a claim in respect of his rights under the ECHR, art 2 against the Ministry of Defence. The majority in the Supreme Court held that the jurisdiction of the ECHR did not extend to protection of Jason Smith's rights under the ECHR, art 2, as he had died as a result of conditions in the field where he was operating in an area seen to be outside UK control.<body><html>

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One way in which positive obligations can be fulfilled is by contracting states being required to enact laws in their domestic legal systems that prohibit, deter, and punish individuals who commit such violations. An example of this is provided by [ case ]

Answer

X and Y v The Netherlands

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ay in which positive obligations can be fulfilled is by contracting states being required to enact laws in their domestic legal systems that prohibit, deter, and punish individuals who commit such violations. An example of this is provided by X and Y v The Netherlands<body><html>

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According to the [ statute ], no derogation is allowed with respect to the ECHR, arts 2 (except regarding deaths resulting from lawful acts of war), 3, 4(1) and 7.

Answer

ECHR, art 15(2)

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According to the ECHR, art 15(2), no derogation is allowed with respect to the ECHR, arts 2 (except regarding deaths resulting from lawful acts of war), 3, 4(1) and 7.

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The [ statute ] allows contracting states to take measures that would interfere temporarily with the rights and freedoms protected by the ECHR and Protocols where:
(a) there is a 'public emergency threatening the life of the nation';
(b) the measure is strictly required by the exigencies of the situation;
(c) the measure is consistent with any other obligations under international law; and
(d) there has been timely written notification to the Secretary-General of the Council of Europe.

Answer

ECHR, art 15

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The ECHR, art 15 allows contracting states to take measures that would interfere temporarily with the rights and freedoms protected by the ECHR and Protocols where:

Answer

(a) there is a 'public emergency threatening the life of the nation';
(b) the measure is strictly required by the exigencies of the situation;
(c) the measure is consistent with any other obligations under international law; and
(d) there has been timely written notification to the Secretary-General of the Council of Europe.

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The ECHR, art 15 allows contracting states to take measures that would interfere temporarily with the rights and freedoms protected by the ECHR and Protocols where: (a) there is a 'public emergency threatening the life of the nation'; (b) the measure is strictly required by the exigencies of the situation; (c) the measure is consistent wit

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In [ case ], the House of Lords quashed the derogation order (and entered a section 4 declaration of incompatibility in respect of the Anti- Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001, ss 21–23), on the ground that the derogation measures were not 'strictly required by the exigencies of the situation'.

Answer

A and Others v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2004] UKHL 56

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In A and Others v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2004] UKHL 56, the House of Lords quashed the derogation order (and entered a section 4 declaration of incompatibility in respect of the Anti- Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001, ss 21–23), on th

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In A and Others v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2004] UKHL 56, the House of Lords quashed the derogation order (and entered a section 4 declaration of incompatibility in respect of the Anti- Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001, ss 21–23), on the ground that [...].

Answer

the derogation measures were not 'strictly required by the exigencies of the situation'

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tate for the Home Department [2004] UKHL 56, the House of Lords quashed the derogation order (and entered a section 4 declaration of incompatibility in respect of the Anti- Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001, ss 21–23), on the ground that the derogation measures were not 'strictly required by the exigencies of the situation'.<body><html>

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Reservations are made under the [ statute ]. Any contracting state may, at the time of signing or ratifying the ECHR, make its acceptance subject to a condition, which limits or varies the application of the ECHR to that state.

Answer

ECHR, art 57

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Reservations are made under the ECHR, art 57. Any contracting state may, at the time of signing or ratifying the ECHR, make its acceptance subject to a condition, which limits or varies the application of the ECHR to that state.</

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The ECtHR has taken the view that [...]. This empowers it to determine the exact nature and content of a given state's acceptance of its jurisdiction. A similar result occurred in Loizidou v Turkey (Preliminary Objections), (1995) 20 EHRR 99, the chief objection being that the purported 'reservation' would defeat the very object and purpose of the Convention.

Answer

it alone has responsibility for deciding what is or is not a reservation

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The ECtHR has taken the view that it alone has responsibility for deciding what is or is not a reservation. This empowers it to determine the exact nature and content of a given state's acceptance of its jurisdiction. A similar result occurred in Loizidou v Turkey (Preliminary Objections), (

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The ECtHR has taken the view that it alone has responsibility for deciding what is or is not a reservation. This empowers it to determine the exact nature and content of a given state's acceptance of its jurisdiction. A similar result occurred in [ case ], the chief objection being that the purported 'reservation' would defeat the very object and purpose of the Convention.

Answer

Loizidou v Turkey (Preliminary Objections), (1995) 20 EHRR 99

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ECtHR has taken the view that it alone has responsibility for deciding what is or is not a reservation. This empowers it to determine the exact nature and content of a given state's acceptance of its jurisdiction. A similar result occurred in Loizidou v Turkey (Preliminary Objections), (1995) 20 EHRR 99, the chief objection being that the purported 'reservation' would defeat the very object and purpose of the Convention.<body><html>

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In [ case ], concerning an interference with freedom of expression under the ECHR, art 10(1) the ECtHR explained, on the basis that this was necessary for the 'protection of morals', that:

'By reason of their direct and continuous contact with the vital forces of their countries, State authorities are in principle in a better position than the international judge to give an opinion on the exact content of those requirements [of morality] as well as on the "necessity" of a "restriction" or "penalty" intended to meet them … Nevertheless, Article 10(2) does not give the Contracting States an unlimited power of appreciation. The court, which, with the Commission, is responsible for ensuring the observance of those States' engagements, is empowered to give the final ruling on whether a "restriction" or "penalty" is reconcilable with freedom of expression as protected by Article 10. The domestic margin of appreciation thus goes hand in hand with a European supervision.'

Answer

Handyside v UK (1976) 1 EHRR 737

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In Handyside v UK (1976) 1 EHRR 737, concerning an interference with freedom of expression under the ECHR, art 10(1) the ECtHR explained, on the basis that this was necessary for the 'protection of morals', that: &#

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In Silver v UK (1983) 5 EHRR 347, Strasbourg added that [...], as the principle of the rule of law implied that interference by the authorities with an individual's rights should be subject to effective control.

Answer

the legal basis must provide safeguards against abuse

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In Silver v UK (1983) 5 EHRR 347, Strasbourg added that the legal basis must provide safeguards against abuse, as the principle of the rule of law implied that interference by the authorities with an individual's rights should be subject to effective control.

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In [ statute ], Strasbourg added that the legal basis must provide safeguards against abuse, as the principle of the rule of law implied that interference by the authorities with an individual's rights should be subject to effective control.

Answer

Silver v UK (1983) 5 EHRR 347

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An example of prescription by law is provided by [ case ], where Strasbourg had to consider whether the imposition of a requirement to be 'bound over to keep the peace' on those charged with, and convicted of, breaches of the peace was sufficiently clear. The court held that, despite it being couched in vague and general terms, the law was sufficiently clear and foreseeable on the basis that the sanction had been set after a finding that a person had committed a breach of the peace. In these particular circumstances it was sufficiently clear that those 'bound over' were agreeing to refrain from causing further, similar breaches of the law in future.

Answer

Steel and Morris v UK (2000) 28 EHRR 603

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An example of prescription by law is provided by Steel and Morris v UK (2000) 28 EHRR 603, where Strasbourg had to consider whether the imposition of a requirement to be 'bound over to keep the peace' on those charged with, and convicted of, breaches of the peace was suffici

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An example of prescription by law is provided by Steel and Morris v UK (2000) 28 EHRR 603, where Strasbourg had to consider whether the imposition of a requirement to be 'bound over to keep the peace' on those charged with, and convicted of, breaches of the peace was sufficiently clear. The court held that, [...] on the basis that the sanction had been set after a finding that a person had committed a breach of the peace. In these particular circumstances it was sufficiently clear that those 'bound over' were agreeing to refrain from causing further, similar breaches of the law in future.

Answer

despite it being couched in vague and general terms, the law was sufficiently clear and foreseeable

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v UK (2000) 28 EHRR 603, where Strasbourg had to consider whether the imposition of a requirement to be 'bound over to keep the peace' on those charged with, and convicted of, breaches of the peace was sufficiently clear. The court held that, despite it being couched in vague and general terms, the law was sufficiently clear and foreseeable on the basis that the sanction had been set after a finding that a person had committed a breach of the peace. In these particular circumstances it was sufficiently clear that those 'bou

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An example of prescription by law is provided by Steel and Morris v UK (2000) 28 EHRR 603, where Strasbourg had to consider whether the imposition of a requirement to be 'bound over to keep the peace' on those charged with, and convicted of, breaches of the peace was sufficiently clear. The court held that, despite it being couched in vague and general terms, the law was sufficiently clear and foreseeable on the basis that [...]. In these particular circumstances it was sufficiently clear that those 'bound over' were agreeing to refrain from causing further, similar breaches of the law in future.

Answer

the sanction had been set after a finding that a person had committed a breach of the peace

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keep the peace' on those charged with, and convicted of, breaches of the peace was sufficiently clear. The court held that, despite it being couched in vague and general terms, the law was sufficiently clear and foreseeable on the basis that the sanction had been set after a finding that a person had committed a breach of the peace. In these particular circumstances it was sufficiently clear that those 'bound over' were agreeing to refrain from causing further, similar breaches of the law in future.<

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Question

Generally, for the state to lawfully interfere with a qualified Convention right, it must be shown that all three of the following circumstances apply.

Answer

(a) The interference was prescribed by, or in accordance with, the law.
(b) The interference was in pursuit of a legitimate aim.
(c) The interference was necessary in a democratic society.

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Generally, for the state to lawfully interfere with a qualified Convention right, it must be shown that all three of the following circumstances apply. (a) The interference was prescribed by, or in accordance with, the law. (b) The interference was in pursuit of a legitimate aim. (c) The interference was necessary in a democra

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In the leading case of Aston Cantlow and Wilmcote with Billesley Parochial Church Council v Wallbank, [2003] UKHL 37 the House of Lords gave some guidance on what constituted the scope of a core public authority. Lord Nicholls (para 7) suggested that the phrase 'public authority' in the HRA 1998, s 1 is 'essentially a reference to a body whose nature is governmental in a broad sense'. His Lordship further suggested that the following factors could be considered relevant in determining whether a body is a 'core' public authority:

Answer

(a) the possession of special powers;
(b) democratic accountability;
(c) public funding in whole or in part;
(d) an obligation to act only in the public interest;
(e) a statutory constitution

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In the leading case of Aston Cantlow and Wilmcote with Billesley Parochial Church Council v Wallbank, [2003] UKHL 37 the House of Lords gave some guidance on what constituted the scope of a core public authority. Lord Nicholls (para 7) suggested that the phrase 'public authority' in the HRA 1998, s 1 is 'essentially a reference to a body whose nature is governmental in a broad sense'. His Lordship further suggested that the following factors could be considered relevant in determining whether a body is a 'core' public authority: (a) the possession of special powers; (b) democratic accountability; (c) public funding in whole or in part; (d) an obligation to act only in the public interest; (e)

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Whereas 'core' public authorities are potentially bound by the ECHR in respect of all their actions, 'hybrid' public authorities are only bound by the ECHR in respect of [...].

Answer

those functions they carry out which are of a public nature

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Whereas 'core' public authorities are potentially bound by the ECHR in respect of all their actions, 'hybrid' public authorities are only bound by the ECHR in respect of those functions they carry out which are of a public nature.

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The HRA 1998, s 8(1) provides that, where a court or tribunal finds that an act of a public authority is unlawful, contrary to the HRA 1998, s 6(1), it may grant such remedy as it considers 'just and appropriate'. The power to award a remedy is, however, limited in a number of respects (see the [ statute ]). In practice, the nature of the remedy will vary greatly according to the context of the case. The normal remedies will include damages, declarations, injunctions, and the prerogative orders.

Answer

HRA 1998, s 8(1)– (4)

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ibunal finds that an act of a public authority is unlawful, contrary to the HRA 1998, s 6(1), it may grant such remedy as it considers 'just and appropriate'. The power to award a remedy is, however, limited in a number of respects (see the HRA 1998, s 8(1)– (4)). In practice, the nature of the remedy will vary greatly according to the context of the case. The normal remedies will include damages, declarations, injunctions, and the prerogativ

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Question

Legislation must be read and given effect, so far as is possible, in a way that is compatible with ECHR rights: [ statute ].

Answer

HRA 1998, s 3

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Legislation must be read and given effect, so far as is possible, in a way that is compatible with ECHR rights: HRA 1998, s 3.

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Legislation must be read and given effect, so far as is possible, in a way that is compatible with ECHR rights: HRA 1998, s 3. If this is not possible, the court can [...]: HRA 1998, s 4.

Answer

make a declaration of incompatibility

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Legislation must be read and given effect, so far as is possible, in a way that is compatible with ECHR rights: HRA 1998, s 3. If this is not possible, the court can make a declaration of incompatibility: HRA 1998, s 4.

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Legislation must be read and given effect, so far as is possible, in a way that is compatible with ECHR rights: HRA 1998, s 3. If this is not possible, the court can make a declaration of incompatibility: [ statute ].

Answer

HRA 1998, s 4

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html>Legislation must be read and given effect, so far as is possible, in a way that is compatible with ECHR rights: HRA 1998, s 3. If this is not possible, the court can make a declaration of incompatibility: HRA 1998, s 4.<html>

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[ case ] was the first decision in which the House of Lords declined to follow the jurisprudence of the ECtHR.

Answer

R v Spear [2002] UKHL 31

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R v Spear [2002] UKHL 31 was the first decision in which the House of Lords declined to follow the jurisprudence of the ECtHR.

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Question

In determining legal questions, including common law development, the courts must [...]: HRA 1998, s 2.

Answer

take into account relevant ECHR case law

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In determining legal questions, including common law development, the courts must take into account relevant ECHR case law: HRA 1998, s 2.

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Question

In determining legal questions, including common law development, the courts must take into account relevant ECHR case law: [ statute ].

Answer

HRA 1998, s 2

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In determining legal questions, including common law development, the courts must take into account relevant ECHR case law: HRA 1998, s 2.

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It is important to note that, where the unlawful interference with a Convention right has been provided for by statute and the court is unable to interpret the offending piece of legislation compatibly with the Convention right and makes a declaration of incompatibility instead, [...].

Answer

the public authority will not be found to have acted unlawfully

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unlawful interference with a Convention right has been provided for by statute and the court is unable to interpret the offending piece of legislation compatibly with the Convention right and makes a declaration of incompatibility instead, the public authority will not be found to have acted unlawfully.<body><html>

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Question

The [ statute ] gives effect to ECHR rights and freedoms in UK domestic law.

Answer

HRA 1998, s 1

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The HRA 1998, s 1 gives effect to ECHR rights and freedoms in UK domestic law.

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The HRA 1998, s 1 [...].

Answer

gives effect to ECHR rights and freedoms in UK domestic law

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The HRA 1998, s 1 gives effect to ECHR rights and freedoms in UK domestic law.

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The [ statute ] provides that UK courts and tribunals have an obligation to take Strasbourg case law ‘into account’ when determining questions that arise in connection with an ECHR right.

Answer

HRA 1998, s 2(1)

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The HRA 1998, s 2(1) provides that UK courts and tribunals have an obligation to take Strasbourg case law ‘into account’ when determining questions that arise in connection with an ECHR right.

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The HRA 1998, s 2(1) provides that [...].

Answer

UK courts and tribunals have an obligation to take Strasbourg case law ‘into account’ when determining questions that arise in connection with an ECHR right

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Question

The [ statute ] provides that:

'[S]o far as it is possible to do so, primary and subordinate legislation must be read and given effect in a way which is compatible with Convention rights.'

Answer

HRA 1998, s 3(1)

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The HRA 1998, s 3(1) provides that: '[S]o far as it is possible to do so, primary and subordinate legislation must be read and given effect in a way which is compatible with Convention rights.'

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Question

The HRA 1998, s 3(1) provides that:

'[S]o far as it is possible to do so, primary and subordinate legislation must [...].'

Answer

be read and given effect in a way which is compatible with Convention rights

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The approach to be taken under the HRA towards the interpretation of legislation has been controversial, as can be seen in R v A (Complainant's Sexual History) (No 2) [2001] 2 WLR 1546. The Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999, s 41 was designed to restrict the circumstances in which evidence and questioning about a complainant's prior sexual history in trials concerning sexual offences could be permitted. The issue was whether this new provision prejudiced the defendant's right to a fair trial under the ECHR, art 6.

The House of Lords held that the Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999, s 41 was incompatible with the right to a fair trial. As a consequence of this finding, their Lordships went on to consider their obligations under the HRA 1998, s 3. Lord Steyn, in particular, advocated a '[...] under the HRA 1998, s 3. He reasoned:

'[T]he interpretative obligation under section 3 of the 1998 Act is a strong one. It applies even if there is no ambiguity in the language in the sense of the language being capable of two different meanings … Parliament specifically rejected the legislative model of requiring a reasonable interpretation. Section 3 places a duty on the court to strive to find a possible interpretation compatible with Convention rights … In accordance with the will of Parliament as reflected in section 3 it will sometimes be necessary to adopt an interpretation which linguistically may appear strained. The techniques to be used will not only involve the reading down of express language in a statute but also the implication of provisions. A declaration of incompatibility is a measure of last resort. It must be avoided unless it is plainly impossible to do so. If a clear limitation on Convention rights is stated in terms, such an impossibility will arise.'

Answer

wide' approach to interpretation

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ice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999, s 41 was incompatible with the right to a fair trial. As a consequence of this finding, their Lordships went on to consider their obligations under the HRA 1998, s 3. Lord Steyn, in particular, advocated a 'wide' approach to interpretation under the HRA 1998, s 3. He reasoned: '[T]he interpretative obligation under section 3 of the 1998 Act is a strong one. It applies even if there is no ambiguity in the langu

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'[T]he interpretative obligation under section 3 of the 1998 Act is a strong one. It applies even [...] … Parliament specifically rejected the legislative model of requiring a reasonable interpretation. Section 3 places a duty on the court to strive to find a possible interpretation compatible with Convention rights … In accordance with the will of Parliament as reflected in section 3 it will sometimes be necessary to adopt an interpretation which linguistically may appear strained. The techniques to be used will not only involve the reading down of express language in a statute but also the implication of provisions. A declaration of incompatibility is a measure of last resort. It must be avoided unless it is plainly impossible to do so. If a clear limitation on Convention rights is stated in terms, such an impossibility will arise.'

Answer

if there is no ambiguity in the language in the sense of the language being capable of two different meanings

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r the HRA 1998, s 3. Lord Steyn, in particular, advocated a 'wide' approach to interpretation under the HRA 1998, s 3. He reasoned: '[T]he interpretative obligation under section 3 of the 1998 Act is a strong one. It applies even if there is no ambiguity in the language in the sense of the language being capable of two different meanings … Parliament specifically rejected the legislative model of requiring a reasonable interpretation. Section 3 places a duty on the court to strive to find a possible interpretation compat

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[T]he interpretative obligation under section 3 of the 1998 Act is a strong one. It applies even if there is no ambiguity in the language in the sense of the language being capable of two different meanings

Answer

R v A (Complainant's Sexual History) (No 2) [2001] 2 WLR 1546

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ial. As a consequence of this finding, their Lordships went on to consider their obligations under the HRA 1998, s 3. Lord Steyn, in particular, advocated a 'wide' approach to interpretation under the HRA 1998, s 3. He reasoned: '[T]he interpretative obligation under section 3 of the 1998 Act is a strong one. It applies even if there is no ambiguity in the language in the sense of the language being capable of two different meanings … Parliament specifically rejected the legislative model of requiring a reasonable interpretation. Section 3 places a duty on the court to strive to find a possible interpretation compat

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'[T]he interpretative obligation under section 3 of the 1998 Act is a strong one. It applies even if there is no ambiguity in the language in the sense of the language being capable of two different meanings … Parliament specifically rejected the legislative model of requiring a reasonable interpretation. Section 3 places a duty on the court to [...] … In accordance with the will of Parliament as reflected in section 3 it will sometimes be necessary to adopt an interpretation which linguistically may appear strained. The techniques to be used will not only involve the reading down of express language in a statute but also the implication of provisions. A declaration of incompatibility is a measure of last resort. It must be avoided unless it is plainly impossible to do so. If a clear limitation on Convention rights is stated in terms, such an impossibility will arise.'

Answer

strive to find a possible interpretation compatible with Convention rights

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re is no ambiguity in the language in the sense of the language being capable of two different meanings … Parliament specifically rejected the legislative model of requiring a reasonable interpretation. Section 3 places a duty on the court to strive to find a possible interpretation compatible with Convention rights … In accordance with the will of Parliament as reflected in section 3 it will sometimes be necessary to adopt an interpretation which linguistically may appear strained. The techniques t

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'[T]he interpretative obligation under section 3 of the 1998 Act is a strong one. It applies even if there is no ambiguity in the language in the sense of the language being capable of two different meanings … Parliament specifically rejected the legislative model of requiring a reasonable interpretation. Section 3 places a duty on the court to strive to find a possible interpretation compatible with Convention rights … In accordance with the will of Parliament as reflected in section 3 it will sometimes be necessary to adopt an interpretation which linguistically may appear strained. The techniques to be used will not only involve the reading down of express language in a statute but also the implication of provisions. A declaration of incompatibility is a measure of last resort. It must be avoided unless it is plainly impossible to do so. If [...], such an impossibility will arise.'

Answer

a clear limitation on Convention rights is stated in terms

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used will not only involve the reading down of express language in a statute but also the implication of provisions. A declaration of incompatibility is a measure of last resort. It must be avoided unless it is plainly impossible to do so. If a clear limitation on Convention rights is stated in terms, such an impossibility will arise.' <body><html>

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The first decision to consider the meaning and extent of HRA 1998, s 2(1) was [ case ], where the House of Lords held that, while the case law of the ECtHR is not binding, domestic courts should follow any clear and consistent jurisprudence unless there were special circumstances, or the decisions of the ECtHR compelled a conclusion fundamentally at odds with the distribution of powers under the UK constitution.

Answer

R (Alconbury Developments Ltd) v Secretary of State for the Environment, [2001] UKHL 23

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The first decision to consider the meaning and extent of HRA 1998, s 2(1) was R (Alconbury Developments Ltd) v Secretary of State for the Environment, [2001] UKHL 23, where the House of Lords held that, while the case law of the ECtHR is not binding, domestic courts should follow any clear and consistent jurisprudence unless there were special cir

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The first decision to consider the meaning and extent of HRA 1998, s 2(1) was R (Alconbury Developments Ltd) v Secretary of State for the Environment, [2001] UKHL 23, where the House of Lords held that, while the case law of the ECtHR is not binding, domestic courts should [...] unless there were special circumstances, or the decisions of the ECtHR compelled a conclusion fundamentally at odds with the distribution of powers under the UK constitution.

Answer

follow any clear and consistent jurisprudence

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meaning and extent of HRA 1998, s 2(1) was R (Alconbury Developments Ltd) v Secretary of State for the Environment, [2001] UKHL 23, where the House of Lords held that, while the case law of the ECtHR is not binding, domestic courts should follow any clear and consistent jurisprudence unless there were special circumstances, or the decisions of the ECtHR compelled a conclusion fundamentally at odds with the distribution of powers under the UK constitution. </

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The first decision to consider the meaning and extent of HRA 1998, s 2(1) was R (Alconbury Developments Ltd) v Secretary of State for the Environment, [2001] UKHL 23, where the House of Lords held that, while the case law of the ECtHR is not binding, domestic courts should follow any clear and consistent jurisprudence unless [...].

Answer

there were special circumstances, or the decisions of the ECtHR compelled a conclusion fundamentally at odds with the distribution of powers under the UK constitution

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ury Developments Ltd) v Secretary of State for the Environment, [2001] UKHL 23, where the House of Lords held that, while the case law of the ECtHR is not binding, domestic courts should follow any clear and consistent jurisprudence unless there were special circumstances, or the decisions of the ECtHR compelled a conclusion fundamentally at odds with the distribution of powers under the UK constitution. <body><html>

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In [ case ], the Court of Appeal undertook a very radical reinterpretation of provisions of the Children Act 1989. The House of Lords reversed this: the opinion of Lord Nicholls provides very useful early guidance on the use of the HRA 1998, s 3:

'In applying section 3 courts must be ever mindful of this outer limit. The Human Rights Act reserves the amendment of primary legislation to Parliament … Interpretation of statutes is a matter for the courts; the enactment of statutes, and the amendment of statutes are matters for Parliament … it is sufficient to say that a meaning which departs substantially from a fundamental feature of an Act of Parliament is likely to have crossed the boundary between interpretation and amendment. This is especially so where the departure has important practical repercussions which the court is not equipped to evaluate.'

Answer

Re S (Children) and Re W (Care Orders) [2002] UKHL 10

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In Re S (Children) and Re W (Care Orders) [2002] UKHL 10, the Court of Appeal undertook a very radical reinterpretation of provisions of the Children Act 1989. The House of Lords reversed this: the opinion of Lord Nicholls provides very usefu

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In Re S (Children) and Re W (Care Orders) [2002] UKHL 10, the Court of Appeal undertook a very radical reinterpretation of provisions of the Children Act 1989. The House of Lords reversed this: the opinion of Lord Nicholls provides very useful early guidance on the use of the HRA 1998, s 3:

'In applying section 3 courts must be ever mindful of this outer limit. The Human Rights Act reserves the amendment of primary legislation to Parliament … Interpretation of statutes is a matter for the courts; the enactment of statutes, and the amendment of statutes are matters for Parliament … it is sufficient to say that a meaning which [...] is likely to have crossed the boundary between interpretation and amendment. This is especially so where the departure has important practical repercussions which the court is not equipped to evaluate.'

Answer

departs substantially from a fundamental feature of an Act of Parliament

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ves the amendment of primary legislation to Parliament … Interpretation of statutes is a matter for the courts; the enactment of statutes, and the amendment of statutes are matters for Parliament … it is sufficient to say that a meaning which departs substantially from a fundamental feature of an Act of Parliament is likely to have crossed the boundary between interpretation and amendment. This is especially so where the departure has important practical repercussions which the court is not equipp

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'In applying section 3 courts must be ever mindful of this outer limit. The Human Rights Act reserves the amendment of primary legislation to Parliament … Interpretation of statutes is a matter for the courts; the enactment of statutes, and the amendment of statutes are matters for Parliament … it is sufficient to say that a meaning which departs substantially from a fundamental feature of an Act of Parliament is likely to [...]. This is especially so where the departure has important practical repercussions which the court is not equipped to evaluate.'

Answer

have crossed the boundary between interpretation and amendment

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a matter for the courts; the enactment of statutes, and the amendment of statutes are matters for Parliament … it is sufficient to say that a meaning which departs substantially from a fundamental feature of an Act of Parliament is likely to have crossed the boundary between interpretation and amendment. This is especially so where the departure has important practical repercussions which the court is not equipped to evaluate.' <body><html>

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'In applying section 3 courts must be ever mindful of this outer limit. The Human Rights Act reserves the amendment of primary legislation to Parliament … Interpretation of statutes is a matter for the courts; the enactment of statutes, and the amendment of statutes are matters for Parliament … it is sufficient to say that a meaning which departs substantially from a fundamental feature of an Act of Parliament is likely to have crossed the boundary between interpretation and amendment. This is especially so where [...].'

Answer

the departure has important practical repercussions which the court is not equipped to evaluate

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rs for Parliament … it is sufficient to say that a meaning which departs substantially from a fundamental feature of an Act of Parliament is likely to have crossed the boundary between interpretation and amendment. This is especially so where the departure has important practical repercussions which the court is not equipped to evaluate.' <body><html>

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It seems therefore that, where the use of the HRA 1998, s 3 would [...], the courts will be more unwilling to use the HRA 1998, s 3.

Answer

represent a major change in the law, having far-reaching consequences

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It seems therefore that, where the use of the HRA 1998, s 3 would represent a major change in the law, having far-reaching consequences, the courts will be more unwilling to use the HRA 1998, s 3.

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In [ case ] the House of Lords used the HRA 1998, s 3to read in the additional words 'as his husband and wife' into the Rent Act 1977, s 76(1) in order to make it compatible with the Convention. The law lords held that the courts should take a broad approach to interpretation under the HRA 1998, s 3. What mattered in their view was the substance of the legislative provision being interpreted rather than the particular phraseology or form of words that were used. In order to make a provision convention- compliant, a court may be required to depart form the clear and unambiguous meaning that the provision would otherwise have borne. The court can interpret the language restrictively or expansively. It can read in words which change the meaning of the legislation.

Answer

Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza [2004] UKHL 30

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In Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza [2004] UKHL 30 the House of Lords used the HRA 1998, s 3to read in the additional words 'as his husband and wife' into the Rent Act 1977, s 76(1) in order to make it compatible with the Convention. T

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In Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza [2004] UKHL 30 the House of Lords used the HRA 1998, s 3to [...] into the Rent Act 1977, s 76(1) in order to make it compatible with the Convention. The law lords held that the courts should take a broad approach to interpretation under the HRA 1998, s 3. What mattered in their view was the substance of the legislative provision being interpreted rather than the particular phraseology or form of words that were used. In order to make a provision convention- compliant, a court may be required to depart form the clear and unambiguous meaning that the provision would otherwise have borne. The court can interpret the language restrictively or expansively. It can read in words which change the meaning of the legislation.

Answer

read in the additional words 'as his husband and wife'

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In Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza [2004] UKHL 30 the House of Lords used the HRA 1998, s 3to read in the additional words 'as his husband and wife' into the Rent Act 1977, s 76(1) in order to make it compatible with the Convention. The law lords held that the courts should take a broad approach to interpretation under the HRA 1998, s 3. What mattered in their view was [...]. In order to make a provision convention- compliant, a court may be required to depart form the clear and unambiguous meaning that the provision would otherwise have borne. The court can interpret the language restrictively or expansively. It can read in words which change the meaning of the legislation.

Answer

the substance of the legislative provision being interpreted rather than the particular phraseology or form of words that were used

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usband and wife' into the Rent Act 1977, s 76(1) in order to make it compatible with the Convention. The law lords held that the courts should take a broad approach to interpretation under the HRA 1998, s 3. What mattered in their view was the substance of the legislative provision being interpreted rather than the particular phraseology or form of words that were used. In order to make a provision convention- compliant, a court may be required to depart form the clear and unambiguous meaning that the provision would otherwise have borne. The court c

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Lord Hoffmann, in [ case ], made the following comments on the scope of the HRA 1998, s 3 and the interpretative obligation it imposes on courts:

'I do not believe that section 3 of the 1998 Act was intended to have the effect of requiring the courts to give the language of statutes acontextual meanings. That would be playing games with words. The important change in the process of interpretation which was made by section 3 was to deem the Convention to form a significant part of the background against which all statutes, whether passed before or after the 1998 Act came into force, had to be interpreted. Just as the "principle of legality" meant that statutes were construed against the background of human rights subsisting at common law (see R v Home Secretary, Ex p Simms [2000] 2 AC 115), so now, section 3 requires them to be construed against the background of Convention rights. There is a strong presumption, arising from the fundamental nature of Convention rights, that Parliament did not intend a statute to mean something which would be incompatible with those rights. This of course goes far beyond the old-fashioned notion of using background to "resolve ambiguities" in a text which had notionally been read without raising one's eyes to look beyond it. The Convention, like the rest of the admissible background, forms part of the primary materials for the process of interpretation. But, with the addition of the Convention as background, the question is still one of interpretation, i.e. the ascertainment of what, taking into account the presumption created by section 3, Parliament would reasonably be understood to have meant by using the actual language of the statute. It is therefore sometimes possible, as my noble and learned friend Lord Nicholls of Birkenhead pointed out in Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza [2004] 2 AC 557, paras 26–33, to construe a statutory provision as referring to, or qualified by, some general concept implied rather than expressly mentioned in the language used by Parliament. Thus in the Ghaidan case, the words "as his or her wife or husband" (my emphasis) were interpreted to refer to a relationship of social and sexual intimacy exemplified by, but not limited to, the heterosexual relationship of husband and wife. The deemed background of the Convention enabled the House to adopt this construction in preference to the more restricted construction adopted before the 1998 Act came into force. It may have come as a surprise to the members of the Parliament which in 1988 enacted the statute construed in the Ghaidan case that the relationship to which they were referring could include homosexual relationships. In that sense the construction may have been contrary to the "intention of Parliament". But that is not normally what one means by the intention of Parliament. One means the interpretation which the reasonable reader would give to the statute read against its background, including, now, an assumption that it was not intended to be incompatible with Convention rights.'

Answer

R (Wilkinson) v Inland Revenue Commissioners [2005] UKHL 30 (at paragraphs 17-18)

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Lord Hoffmann, in R (Wilkinson) v Inland Revenue Commissioners [2005] UKHL 30 (at paragraphs 17-18), made the following comments on the scope of the HRA 1998, s 3 and the interpretative obligation it imposes on courts: 'I do not believe that section 3 of the 1998 Act was

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Lord Hoffmann, in R (Wilkinson) v Inland Revenue Commissioners [2005] UKHL 30 (at paragraphs 17-18), made the following comments on the scope of the HRA 1998, s 3 and the interpretative obligation it imposes on courts:

'I do not believe that section 3 of the 1998 Act was intended to have the effect of requiring the courts to give the language of statutes acontextual meanings. That would be playing games with words. The important change in the process of interpretation which was made by section 3 was to deem the Convention to form a significant part of the background against which all statutes, whether passed before or after the 1998 Act came into force, had to be interpreted. Just as the "principle of legality" meant that statutes were construed against the background of human rights subsisting at common law (see R v Home Secretary, Ex p Simms [2000] 2 AC 115), so now, section 3 requires them to be construed against the background of Convention rights. There is a strong presumption, arising from the fundamental nature of Convention rights, that [...]. This of course goes far beyond the old-fashioned notion of using background to "resolve ambiguities" in a text which had notionally been read without raising one's eyes to look beyond it. The Convention, like the rest of the admissible background, forms part of the primary materials for the process of interpretation. But, with the addition of the Convention as background, the question is still one of interpretation, i.e. the ascertainment of what, taking into account the presumption created by section 3, Parliament would reasonably be understood to have meant by using the actual language of the statute. It is therefore sometimes possible, as my noble and learned friend Lord Nicholls of Birkenhead pointed out in Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza [2004] 2 AC 557, paras 26–33, to construe a statutory provision as referring to, or qualified by, some general concept implied rather than expressly mentioned in the language used by Parliament. Thus in the Ghaidan case, the words "as his or her wife or husband" (my emphasis) were interpreted to refer to a relationship of social and sexual intimacy exemplified by, but not limited to, the heterosexual relationship of husband and wife. The deemed background of the Convention enabled the House to adopt this construction in preference to the more restricted construction adopted before the 1998 Act came into force. It may have come as a surprise to the members of the Parliament which in 1988 enacted the statute construed in the Ghaidan case that the relationship to which they were referring could include homosexual relationships. In that sense the construction may have been contrary to the "intention of Parliament". But that is not normally what one means by the intention of Parliament. One means the interpretation which the reasonable reader would give to the statute read against its background, including, now, an assumption that it was not intended to be incompatible with Convention rights.'

Answer

Parliament did not intend a statute to mean something which would be incompatible with those rights

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w (see R v Home Secretary, Ex p Simms [2000] 2 AC 115), so now, section 3 requires them to be construed against the background of Convention rights. There is a strong presumption, arising from the fundamental nature of Convention rights, that Parliament did not intend a statute to mean something which would be incompatible with those rights. This of course goes far beyond the old-fashioned notion of using background to "resolve ambiguities" in a text which had notionally been read without raising one's eyes to lo

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'I do not believe that section 3 of the 1998 Act was intended to have the effect of requiring the courts to give the language of statutes acontextual meanings. That would be playing games with words. The important change in the process of interpretation which was made by section 3 was to deem the Convention to form a significant part of the background against which all statutes, whether passed before or after the 1998 Act came into force, had to be interpreted. Just as the "principle of legality" meant that statutes were construed against the background of human rights subsisting at common law (see R v Home Secretary, Ex p Simms [2000] 2 AC 115), so now, section 3 requires them to be construed against the background of Convention rights. There is a strong presumption, arising from the fundamental nature of Convention rights, that Parliament did not intend a statute to mean something which would be incompatible with those rights. This of course goes far beyond the old-fashioned notion of using background to "resolve ambiguities" in a text which had notionally been read without raising one's eyes to look beyond it. The Convention, like the rest of the admissible background, forms part of the primary materials for the process of interpretation. But, with the addition of the Convention as background, the question is still one of interpretation, i.e. [...]. It is therefore sometimes possible, as my noble and learned friend Lord Nicholls of Birkenhead pointed out in Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza [2004] 2 AC 557, paras 26–33, to construe a statutory provision as referring to, or qualified by, some general concept implied rather than expressly mentioned in the language used by Parliament. Thus in the Ghaidan case, the words "as his or her wife or husband" (my emphasis) were interpreted to refer to a relationship of social and sexual intimacy exemplified by, but not limited to, the heterosexual relationship of husband and wife. The deemed background of the Convention enabled the House to adopt this construction in preference to the more restricted construction adopted before the 1998 Act came into force. It may have come as a surprise to the members of the Parliament which in 1988 enacted the statute construed in the Ghaidan case that the relationship to which they were referring could include homosexual relationships. In that sense the construction may have been contrary to the "intention of Parliament". But that is not normally what one means by the intention of Parliament. One means the interpretation which the reasonable reader would give to the statute read against its background, including, now, an assumption that it was not intended to be incompatible with Convention rights.'

Answer

the ascertainment of what, taking into account the presumption created by section 3, Parliament would reasonably be understood to have meant by using the actual language of the statute

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d it. The Convention, like the rest of the admissible background, forms part of the primary materials for the process of interpretation. But, with the addition of the Convention as background, the question is still one of interpretation, i.e. the ascertainment of what, taking into account the presumption created by section 3, Parliament would reasonably be understood to have meant by using the actual language of the statute. It is therefore sometimes possible, as my noble and learned friend Lord Nicholls of Birkenhead pointed out in Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza [2004] 2 AC 557, paras 26–33, to construe a statut

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'I do not believe that section 3 of the 1998 Act was intended to have the effect of requiring the courts to give the language of statutes acontextual meanings. That would be playing games with words. The important change in the process of interpretation which was made by section 3 was to deem the Convention to form a significant part of the background against which all statutes, whether passed before or after the 1998 Act came into force, had to be interpreted. Just as the "principle of legality" meant that statutes were construed against the background of human rights subsisting at common law (see R v Home Secretary, Ex p Simms [2000] 2 AC 115), so now, section 3 requires them to be construed against the background of Convention rights. There is a strong presumption, arising from the fundamental nature of Convention rights, that Parliament did not intend a statute to mean something which would be incompatible with those rights. This of course goes far beyond the old-fashioned notion of using background to "resolve ambiguities" in a text which had notionally been read without raising one's eyes to look beyond it. The Convention, like the rest of the admissible background, forms part of the primary materials for the process of interpretation. But, with the addition of the Convention as background, the question is still one of interpretation, i.e. the ascertainment of what, taking into account the presumption created by section 3, Parliament would reasonably be understood to have meant by using the actual language of the statute. It is therefore sometimes possible, as my noble and learned friend Lord Nicholls of Birkenhead pointed out in Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza [2004] 2 AC 557, paras 26–33, to construe a statutory provision as [...]. Thus in the Ghaidan case, the words "as his or her wife or husband" (my emphasis) were interpreted to refer to a relationship of social and sexual intimacy exemplified by, but not limited to, the heterosexual relationship of husband and wife. The deemed background of the Convention enabled the House to adopt this construction in preference to the more restricted construction adopted before the 1998 Act came into force. It may have come as a surprise to the members of the Parliament which in 1988 enacted the statute construed in the Ghaidan case that the relationship to which they were referring could include homosexual relationships. In that sense the construction may have been contrary to the "intention of Parliament". But that is not normally what one means by the intention of Parliament. One means the interpretation which the reasonable reader would give to the statute read against its background, including, now, an assumption that it was not intended to be incompatible with Convention rights.'

Answer

referring to, or qualified by, some general concept implied rather than expressly mentioned in the language used by Parliament

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using the actual language of the statute. It is therefore sometimes possible, as my noble and learned friend Lord Nicholls of Birkenhead pointed out in Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza [2004] 2 AC 557, paras 26–33, to construe a statutory provision as referring to, or qualified by, some general concept implied rather than expressly mentioned in the language used by Parliament. Thus in the Ghaidan case, the words "as his or her wife or husband" (my emphasis) were interpreted to refer to a relationship of social and sexual intimacy exemplified by, bu

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'I do not believe that section 3 of the 1998 Act was intended to have the effect of requiring the courts to give the language of statutes acontextual meanings. That would be playing games with words. The important change in the process of interpretation which was made by section 3 was to deem the Convention to form a significant part of the background against which all statutes, whether passed before or after the 1998 Act came into force, had to be interpreted. Just as the "principle of legality" meant that statutes were construed against the background of human rights subsisting at common law (see R v Home Secretary, Ex p Simms [2000] 2 AC 115), so now, section 3 requires them to be construed against the background of Convention rights. There is a strong presumption, arising from the fundamental nature of Convention rights, that Parliament did not intend a statute to mean something which would be incompatible with those rights. This of course goes far beyond the old-fashioned notion of using background to "resolve ambiguities" in a text which had notionally been read without raising one's eyes to look beyond it. The Convention, like the rest of the admissible background, forms part of the primary materials for the process of interpretation. But, with the addition of the Convention as background, the question is still one of interpretation, i.e. the ascertainment of what, taking into account the presumption created by section 3, Parliament would reasonably be understood to have meant by using the actual language of the statute. It is therefore sometimes possible, as my noble and learned friend Lord Nicholls of Birkenhead pointed out in Ghaidan v Godin-Mendoza [2004] 2 AC 557, paras 26–33, to construe a statutory provision as referring to, or qualified by, some general concept implied rather than expressly mentioned in the language used by Parliament. Thus in the Ghaidan case, the words "as his or her wife or husband" (my emphasis) were interpreted to refer to a relationship of social and sexual intimacy exemplified by, but not limited to, the heterosexual relationship of husband and wife. The deemed background of the Convention enabled the House to adopt this construction in preference to the more restricted construction adopted before the 1998 Act came into force. It may have come as a surprise to the members of the Parliament which in 1988 enacted the statute construed in the Ghaidan case that the relationship to which they were referring could include homosexual relationships. In that sense the construction may have been contrary to the "intention of Parliament". But that is not normally what one means by the intention of Parliament. One means [...].'

Answer

the interpretation which the reasonable reader would give to the statute read against its background, including, now, an assumption that it was not intended to be incompatible with Convention rights

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ch they were referring could include homosexual relationships. In that sense the construction may have been contrary to the "intention of Parliament". But that is not normally what one means by the intention of Parliament. One means the interpretation which the reasonable reader would give to the statute read against its background, including, now, an assumption that it was not intended to be incompatible with Convention rights.' <body><html>

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A more recent example of the courts applying the HRA 1998, s 3(1) is provided by [ case ]. The case concerned a local housing authority which sought a possession order from the county court under the Housing Act 1996, s 143 on the grounds of anti-social behaviour on the part of a 'demoted' tenant. It was held by the Supreme Court that county court judges were required by the ECHR, art 8 to consider the proportionality of evicting a person from his home when granting this type of possession order. It was noted that the Housing Act 1996, s 143 had been drafted by Parliament with the intention that county court judges would grant possession orders against demoted tenants once the housing authority had adhered to the procedural requirements contained within the Act. The Supreme Court, however, read the word 'lawful' into the Housing Act 1996, s 143 (using its power under the HRA 1998, s 3(1)), so that county court judges could review the proportionality of the possession order.

Answer

Pinnock v Manchester City Council [2010] UKSC 45

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A more recent example of the courts applying the HRA 1998, s 3(1) is provided by Pinnock v Manchester City Council [2010] UKSC 45. The case concerned a local housing authority which sought a possession order from the county court under the Housing Act 1996, s 143 on the grounds of anti-social behaviour on the part

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The case concerned a local housing authority which sought a possession order from the county court under the Housing Act 1996, s 143 on the grounds of anti-social behaviour on the part of a 'demoted' tenant. It was held by the Supreme Court that county court judges were required by the ECHR, art 8 to consider the proportionality of evicting a person from his home when granting this type of possession order. It was noted that the Housing Act 1996, s 143 had been drafted by Parliament with the intention that county court judges would grant possession orders against demoted tenants once the housing authority had adhered to the procedural requirements contained within the Act. The Supreme Court, however, read the word 'lawful' into the Housing Act 1996, s 143 (using its power under the HRA 1998, s 3(1)), so that county court judges could review the proportionality of the possession order.

Answer

Pinnock v Manchester City Council [2010] UKSC 45

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A more recent example of the courts applying the HRA 1998, s 3(1) is provided by Pinnock v Manchester City Council [2010] UKSC 45. The case concerned a local housing authority which sought a possession order from the county court under the Housing Act 1996, s 143 on the grounds of anti-social behaviour on the part of a 'demoted' tenant. It was held by the Supreme Court that county court judges were required by the ECHR, art 8 to consider the proportionality of evicting a person from his home when granting this type of possession order. It was noted that the Housing Act 1996, s 143 had been drafted by Parliament with the intention that county court judges would grant possession orders against demoted tenants once the housing authority had adhered to the procedural requirements contained within the Act. The Supreme Court, however, [...] into the Housing Act 1996, s 143 (using its power under the HRA 1998, s 3(1)), so that county court judges could review the proportionality of the possession order.

Answer

read the word 'lawful'

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rafted by Parliament with the intention that county court judges would grant possession orders against demoted tenants once the housing authority had adhered to the procedural requirements contained within the Act. The Supreme Court, however, read the word 'lawful' into the Housing Act 1996, s 143 (using its power under the HRA 1998, s 3(1)), so that county court judges could review the proportionality of the possession order.<body><

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in situations where the court does not consider it appropriate to adopt a HRA 1998, s 3 interpretation of relevant law, it may make a declaration that a particular provision is incompatible with an ECHR right: see the [ statute ] regarding primary legislation and the HRA 1998, s 4(4) regarding subordinate legislation.

Answer

HRA 1998, s 4(2)

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head>in situations where the court does not consider it appropriate to adopt a HRA 1998, s 3 interpretation of relevant law, it may make a declaration that a particular provision is incompatible with an ECHR right: see the HRA 1998, s 4(2) regarding primary legislation and the HRA 1998, s 4(4) regarding subordinate legislation.<html>

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in situations where the court does not consider it appropriate to adopt a HRA 1998, s 3 interpretation of relevant law, it may make a declaration that a particular provision is incompatible with an ECHR right: see the HRA 1998, s 4(2) regarding primary legislation and the [ statute ] regarding subordinate legislation.

Answer

HRA 1998, s 4(4)

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s not consider it appropriate to adopt a HRA 1998, s 3 interpretation of relevant law, it may make a declaration that a particular provision is incompatible with an ECHR right: see the HRA 1998, s 4(2) regarding primary legislation and the HRA 1998, s 4(4) regarding subordinate legislation.<body><html>

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In [ case ], the House of Lords made a declaration under the HRA 1998, s 4 that the Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001, s 23 was incompatible with the ECHR, arts 5 and 14, insofar as it was disproportionate and permitted detention of suspected international terrorists without charge or trial and discriminated on the ground of nationality or immigration status.

Answer

A and Others v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2004] UKHL 56

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In A and Others v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2004] UKHL 56, the House of Lords made a declaration under the HRA 1998, s 4 that the Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001, s 23 was incompatible with the ECHR, arts 5 and 14, insofar as it

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In A and Others v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2004] UKHL 56, the House of Lords made a declaration under the HRA 1998, s 4 that the Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001, s 23 was incompatible with the ECHR, arts 5 and 14, insofar as [...].

Answer

it was disproportionate and permitted detention of suspected international terrorists without charge or trial and discriminated on the ground of nationality or immigration status

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v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2004] UKHL 56, the House of Lords made a declaration under the HRA 1998, s 4 that the Anti-Terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001, s 23 was incompatible with the ECHR, arts 5 and 14, insofar as it was disproportionate and permitted detention of suspected international terrorists without charge or trial and discriminated on the ground of nationality or immigration status.<body><html>

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See too the case of [ case ] where the House of Lords found the Crime (Sentences) Act 1997, s 29 to be incompatible with the ECHR, art 6(1), as it left the decision on tariffs for mandatory life term prisoners solely in the hands of the Home Secretary.

Answer

R (Anderson) v Secretary of State for the Home Department, [2002] UKHL 46

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See too the case of R (Anderson) v Secretary of State for the Home Department, [2002] UKHL 46 where the House of Lords found the Crime (Sentences) Act 1997, s 29 to be incompatible with the ECHR, art 6(1), as it left the decision on tariffs for mandatory life term prisoners sole

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The public authority may, however, appeal against a decision to make a declaration under the HRA 1998, s 4. See, for instance, the case of [ case ] where the House of Lords overturned a declaration made by the Court of Appeal that the Mental Health Act 1983, s 2 was incompatible with the ECHR, art 5 (4).

Answer

R (on the application of H) v Secretary of State for Health, [2005] UKHL 60

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The public authority may, however, appeal against a decision to make a declaration under the HRA 1998, s 4. See, for instance, the case of R (on the application of H) v Secretary of State for Health, [2005] UKHL 60 where the House of Lords overturned a declaration made by the Court of Appeal that the Mental Health Act 1983, s 2 was incompatible with the ECHR, art 5 (4).

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The [ statute ] provides that, in response to a declaration of incompatibility made under the HRA 1998, s 4 (or to a decision of the ECHR), the relevant ministers may take expedited 'remedial action' to amend the relevant legislation as necessary to remove the incompatibility, if 'there are compelling reasons for proceeding under this section'.

Answer

HRA 1998, s 10(2)

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The HRA 1998, s 10(2) provides that, in response to a declaration of incompatibility made under the HRA 1998, s 4 (or to a decision of the ECHR), the relevant ministers may take expedited 'remedial action'

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In [ case ], Lord Hope provided the following guidance with respect to the defence under the HRA 1998, s 6(2):

'The situation to which paragraph (a) is addressed arises where the effect of the primary legislation is that the authority has no alternative but to do what the legislation tells it to do. The language of the paragraph tells us that this may be the result of one provision taken by itself, or that it may be the result of two or more provisions taken together. Where more than one provision is involved, they may be part of one enactment or they may be found in several different enactments. The key to its application lies in the fact that the effect of this legislation, wherever it is found, is that a duty is imposed on the authority. If the legislation imposes a duty to act, the authority is obliged to act in the manner which the legislation lays down even if the legislation requires it to act in a way which is incompatible with a Convention right. The authority has no discretion to do otherwise. As it is a duty which has been imposed on the authority by or as a result of primary legislation, Parliamentary sovereignty prevails over the Convention right. The defence is provided to prevent the legislation from being rendered unenforceable. The situation to which paragraph (b) is addressed on the other hand arises where the authority has a discretion, which it has the power to exercise or not to exercise as it chooses, to give effect to or enforce provisions of or made under primary legislation which cannot be read or given effect to in a way which is compatible with the Convention rights. The source of that discretion may be in a single statutory provision which confers a power on the authority which it may or may not choose to exercise.'

Answer

R v Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, ex parte Hooper [2005] UKHL 29

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In R v Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, ex parte Hooper [2005] UKHL 29, Lord Hope provided the following guidance with respect to the defence under the HRA 1998, s 6(2): 'The situation to which paragraph (a) is addressed arises where the effec

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In R v Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, ex parte Hooper [2005] UKHL 29, Lord Hope provided the following guidance with respect to the defence under the HRA 1998, s 6(2):

'The situation to which paragraph (a) is addressed arises where the effect of the primary legislation is that the authority has no alternative but to do what the legislation tells it to do. The language of the paragraph tells us that this may be the result of one provision taken by itself, or that it may be the result of two or more provisions taken together. Where more than one provision is involved, they may be part of one enactment or they may be found in several different enactments. The key to its application lies in the fact that the effect of this legislation, wherever it is found, is that a duty is imposed on the authority. If [...]. The authority has no discretion to do otherwise. As it is a duty which has been imposed on the authority by or as a result of primary legislation, Parliamentary sovereignty prevails over the Convention right. The defence is provided to prevent the legislation from being rendered unenforceable. The situation to which paragraph (b) is addressed on the other hand arises where the authority has a discretion, which it has the power to exercise or not to exercise as it chooses, to give effect to or enforce provisions of or made under primary legislation which cannot be read or given effect to in a way which is compatible with the Convention rights. The source of that discretion may be in a single statutory provision which confers a power on the authority which it may or may not choose to exercise.'

Answer

the legislation imposes a duty to act, the authority is obliged to act in the manner which the legislation lays down even if the legislation requires it to act in a way which is incompatible with a Convention right

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ved, they may be part of one enactment or they may be found in several different enactments. The key to its application lies in the fact that the effect of this legislation, wherever it is found, is that a duty is imposed on the authority. If the legislation imposes a duty to act, the authority is obliged to act in the manner which the legislation lays down even if the legislation requires it to act in a way which is incompatible with a Convention right. The authority has no discretion to do otherwise. As it is a duty which has been imposed on the authority by or as a result of primary legislation, Parliamentary sovereignty prevails ov

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The Leonard Cheshire Foundation provided accommodation in a care home for residents with disabilities whose places were being funded by a local authority under the National Assistance Act 1948. The charity decided to re-develop the home which meant that certain existing residents could not remain. The residents sought judicial review of the decision, arguing that the loss of their home constituted a violation of the ECHR, art 8 (right to respect for home). The crucial question was whether the charity was exercising a public function for the purposes of the HRA 1998. The Court of Appeal adopted the criteria set out in Poplar and found that the HRA 1998, s 6(3)(b) did not apply to the managers of the care home. It noted that there was no material distinction between the services they provided for residents funded by the local authority and those it provided to privately funded residents. Furthermore, although the Foundation was performing a function delegated under statutory authority, it was not itself exercising statutory powers. On the facts, the Foundation was held not to be 'enmeshed' in the activities of the local authority in the same way that Poplar Housing had been.

Answer

R (Heather) v Leonard Cheshire Foundation [2002] 2 All ER 936

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The second case to deal with the HRA 1998, s 6(3)(b) was R (Heather) v Leonard Cheshire Foundation [2002] 2 All ER 936. The Leonard Cheshire Foundation provided accommodation in a care home for residents with disabilities whose places were being funded by a local authority under the National Assistan

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The second case to deal with the HRA 1998, s 6(3)(b) was R (Heather) v Leonard Cheshire Foundation [2002] 2 All ER 936. The Leonard Cheshire Foundation provided accommodation in a care home for residents with disabilities whose places were being funded by a local authority under the National Assistance Act 1948. The charity decided to re-develop the home which meant that certain existing residents could not remain. The residents sought judicial review of the decision, arguing that the loss of their home constituted a violation of the ECHR, art 8 (right to respect for home). The crucial question was whether the charity was exercising a public function for the purposes of the HRA 1998. The Court of Appeal adopted the criteria set out in Poplar and found that the HRA 1998, s 6(3)(b) did not apply to the managers of the care home. It noted that [...]. Furthermore, although the Foundation was performing a function delegated under statutory authority, it was not itself exercising statutory powers. On the facts, the Foundation was held not to be 'enmeshed' in the activities of the local authority in the same way that Poplar Housing had been.

Answer

there was no material distinction between the services they provided for residents funded by the local authority and those it provided to privately funded residents

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the charity was exercising a public function for the purposes of the HRA 1998. The Court of Appeal adopted the criteria set out in Poplar and found that the HRA 1998, s 6(3)(b) did not apply to the managers of the care home. It noted that there was no material distinction between the services they provided for residents funded by the local authority and those it provided to privately funded residents. Furthermore, although the Foundation was performing a function delegated under statutory authority, it was not itself exercising statutory powers. On the facts, the Foundation was he

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The second case to deal with the HRA 1998, s 6(3)(b) was R (Heather) v Leonard Cheshire Foundation [2002] 2 All ER 936. The Leonard Cheshire Foundation provided accommodation in a care home for residents with disabilities whose places were being funded by a local authority under the National Assistance Act 1948. The charity decided to re-develop the home which meant that certain existing residents could not remain. The residents sought judicial review of the decision, arguing that the loss of their home constituted a violation of the ECHR, art 8 (right to respect for home). The crucial question was whether the charity was exercising a public function for the purposes of the HRA 1998. The Court of Appeal adopted the criteria set out in Poplar and found that the HRA 1998, s 6(3)(b) did not apply to the managers of the care home. It noted that there was no material distinction between the services they provided for residents funded by the local authority and those it provided to privately funded residents. Furthermore, although the Foundation was [...]. On the facts, the Foundation was held not to be 'enmeshed' in the activities of the local authority in the same way that Poplar Housing had been.

Answer

performing a function delegated under statutory authority, it was not itself exercising statutory powers

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of the care home. It noted that there was no material distinction between the services they provided for residents funded by the local authority and those it provided to privately funded residents. Furthermore, although the Foundation was performing a function delegated under statutory authority, it was not itself exercising statutory powers. On the facts, the Foundation was held not to be 'enmeshed' in the activities of the local authority in the same way that Poplar Housing had been.<body><html>

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As indicated above, the concept of 'public authority', both core and functional, was reviewed by the House of Lords in Aston Cantlow, which was decided after Poplar and Leonard Cheshire. (Although note that these cases were not specifically overruled by the House of Lords.) The House of Lords stressed that it was [...] that should determine whether a body was a functional public authority. Lord Nicholls suggested that there should be a 'generously wide' interpretation of public function so as to further the statutory aim of promoting human rights protection. Lord Hope stated that the concept of a functional public authority:

'… has a much wider reach, and is sensitive to the facts of each case. It is the function that the person is performing that is determinative of the question whether it is a … "hybrid" [functional] public authority.'

Lord Nicholls (para 12) suggested that the following factors may be relevant in assessing whether or not the relevant function is a public one:
(a) the extent to which, in carrying out the function, the body is publicly funded; or
(b) exercising statutory power; or
(c) taking the place of central government or local authorities; or
(d) is providing a public service.

Answer

the nature of the function being performed

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ctional, was reviewed by the House of Lords in Aston Cantlow, which was decided after Poplar and Leonard Cheshire. (Although note that these cases were not specifically overruled by the House of Lords.) The House of Lords stressed that it was the nature of the function being performed that should determine whether a body was a functional public authority. Lord Nicholls suggested that there should be a 'generously wide' interpretation of public function so as to furthe

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In Aston Cantlow Lord Nicholls (para 12) suggested that the following factors may be relevant in assessing whether or not the relevant function is a public one: (4)

Answer

(a) the extent to which, in carrying out the function, the body is publicly funded; or
(b) exercising statutory power; or
(c) taking the place of central government or local authorities; or
(d) is providing a public service.

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In Aston Cantlow Lord Nicholls (para 12) suggested that the following factors may be relevant in assessing whether or not the relevant function is a public one: (a) the extent to which, in carrying out the function, the body is publicly funded; or (b) exercising statutory power; or (c) taking the place of central government or local au

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In [ case ] Lord Nicholls (para 12) suggested that the following factors may be relevant in assessing whether or not the relevant function is a public one:
(a) the extent to which, in carrying out the function, the body is publicly funded; or
(b) exercising statutory power; or
(c) taking the place of central government or local authorities; or
(d) is providing a public service.

Answer

Aston Cantlow

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To determine whether the Parochial Church Council was performing a public function in Aston Cantlow, the House of Lords stressed the importance of considering the nature of the particular act being carried out by the body in question. In the instant case, the PCC was trying to enforce an obligation to repair against the lay rectors. Their Lordships decided that this was not a public function. Lord Hope stated: 'The function which it is performing [...]'.

Answer

has nothing to do with the responsibilities which are owed to the public by the State

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by the body in question. In the instant case, the PCC was trying to enforce an obligation to repair against the lay rectors. Their Lordships decided that this was not a public function. Lord Hope stated: 'The function which it is performing has nothing to do with the responsibilities which are owed to the public by the State'.<body><html>

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The most important recent case dealing with the concept of what constitutes the performance of a public function is [case]. This case involved the provision of care and accommodation in privately run care homes for the elderly. In the Court of Appeal, Lord Justice Buxton confirmed that, following Leonard Cheshire, a private care home, when accommodating the appellants, was not performing the functions of a public authority under the HRA 1998, s 6(3)(b). The House of Lords, in a 3-2 majority decision, confirmed that the care home was not a functional public authority for the purposes of the HRA 1998. Lord Scott (in the majority) summarised as follows at paragraph 26:

'Southern Cross is a company carrying on a socially useful business for profit. It is neither a charity nor a philanthropist. It enters into private law contracts with the residents in its care homes and with the local authorities with whom it does business. It receives no public funding, enjoys no special statutory powers, and is at liberty to accept or reject residents as it chooses (subject, of course, to anti- discrimination legislation which affects everyone who offers a service to the public) and to charge whatever fees in its commercial judgment it thinks suitable. It is operating in a commercial market with commercial competitors.'

However, he stated at paragraph 28:

'The position might be different if the managers of privately owned care homes enjoyed special statutory powers over residents entitling them to restrain them or to discipline them in some way or to confine them to their rooms or to the care home premises.'

Answer

YL v Birmingham City Council [2007] UKHL 27

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The most important recent case dealing with the concept of what constitutes the performance of a public function is YL v Birmingham City Council [2007] UKHL 27. This case involved the provision of care and accommodation in privately run care homes for the elderly. In the Court of Appeal, Lord Justice Buxton confirmed that, following Leonard Ch

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The most important recent case dealing with the concept of what constitutes the performance of a public function is YL v Birmingham City Council [2007] UKHL 27. This case involved the provision of care and accommodation in privately run care homes for the elderly. In the Court of Appeal, Lord Justice Buxton confirmed that, following Leonard Cheshire, [...]. The House of Lords, in a 3-2 majority decision, confirmed that the care home was not a functional public authority for the purposes of the HRA 1998. Lord Scott (in the majority) summarised as follows at paragraph 26:

'Southern Cross is a company carrying on a socially useful business for profit. It is neither a charity nor a philanthropist. It enters into private law contracts with the residents in its care homes and with the local authorities with whom it does business. It receives no public funding, enjoys no special statutory powers, and is at liberty to accept or reject residents as it chooses (subject, of course, to anti- discrimination legislation which affects everyone who offers a service to the public) and to charge whatever fees in its commercial judgment it thinks suitable. It is operating in a commercial market with commercial competitors.'

However, he stated at paragraph 28:

'The position might be different if the managers of privately owned care homes enjoyed special statutory powers over residents entitling them to restrain them or to discipline them in some way or to confine them to their rooms or to the care home premises.'

Answer

a private care home, when accommodating the appellants, was not performing the functions of a public authority under the HRA 1998, s 6(3)(b)

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on is YL v Birmingham City Council [2007] UKHL 27. This case involved the provision of care and accommodation in privately run care homes for the elderly. In the Court of Appeal, Lord Justice Buxton confirmed that, following Leonard Cheshire, a private care home, when accommodating the appellants, was not performing the functions of a public authority under the HRA 1998, s 6(3)(b). The House of Lords, in a 3-2 majority decision, confirmed that the care home was not a functional public authority for the purposes of the HRA 1998. Lord Scott (in the majority) summar

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The most important recent case dealing with the concept of what constitutes the performance of a public function is YL v Birmingham City Council [2007] UKHL 27. This case involved the provision of care and accommodation in privately run care homes for the elderly. In the Court of Appeal, Lord Justice Buxton confirmed that, following Leonard Cheshire, a private care home, when accommodating the appellants, was not performing the functions of a public authority under the HRA 1998, s 6(3)(b). The House of Lords, in a 3-2 majority decision, confirmed that the care home was not a functional public authority for the purposes of the HRA 1998. Lord Scott (in the majority) summarised as follows at paragraph 26:

'Southern Cross is a company [...]. It is neither a charity nor a philanthropist. It enters into private law contracts with the residents in its care homes and with the local authorities with whom it does business. It receives no public funding, enjoys no special statutory powers, and is at liberty to accept or reject residents as it chooses (subject, of course, to anti- discrimination legislation which affects everyone who offers a service to the public) and to charge whatever fees in its commercial judgment it thinks suitable. It is operating in a commercial market with commercial competitors.'

However, he stated at paragraph 28:

'The position might be different if the managers of privately owned care homes enjoyed special statutory powers over residents entitling them to restrain them or to discipline them in some way or to confine them to their rooms or to the care home premises.'

Answer

carrying on a socially useful business for profit

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s, in a 3-2 majority decision, confirmed that the care home was not a functional public authority for the purposes of the HRA 1998. Lord Scott (in the majority) summarised as follows at paragraph 26: 'Southern Cross is a company carrying on a socially useful business for profit. It is neither a charity nor a philanthropist. It enters into private law contracts with the residents in its care homes and with the local authorities with whom it does business. It re

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The most important recent case dealing with the concept of what constitutes the performance of a public function is YL v Birmingham City Council [2007] UKHL 27. This case involved the provision of care and accommodation in privately run care homes for the elderly. In the Court of Appeal, Lord Justice Buxton confirmed that, following Leonard Cheshire, a private care home, when accommodating the appellants, was not performing the functions of a public authority under the HRA 1998, s 6(3)(b). The House of Lords, in a 3-2 majority decision, confirmed that the care home was not a functional public authority for the purposes of the HRA 1998. Lord Scott (in the majority) summarised as follows at paragraph 26:

'Southern Cross is a company carrying on a socially useful business for profit. It is neither a charity nor a philanthropist. It enters into [...]. It receives no public funding, enjoys no special statutory powers, and is at liberty to accept or reject residents as it chooses (subject, of course, to anti- discrimination legislation which affects everyone who offers a service to the public) and to charge whatever fees in its commercial judgment it thinks suitable. It is operating in a commercial market with commercial competitors.'

However, he stated at paragraph 28:

'The position might be different if the managers of privately owned care homes enjoyed special statutory powers over residents entitling them to restrain them or to discipline them in some way or to confine them to their rooms or to the care home premises.'

Answer

private law contracts with the residents in its care homes and with the local authorities with whom it does business

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es of the HRA 1998. Lord Scott (in the majority) summarised as follows at paragraph 26: 'Southern Cross is a company carrying on a socially useful business for profit. It is neither a charity nor a philanthropist. It enters into private law contracts with the residents in its care homes and with the local authorities with whom it does business. It receives no public funding, enjoys no special statutory powers, and is at liberty to accept or reject residents as it chooses (subject, of course, to anti- discrimination legislatio

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The most important recent case dealing with the concept of what constitutes the performance of a public function is YL v Birmingham City Council [2007] UKHL 27. This case involved the provision of care and accommodation in privately run care homes for the elderly. In the Court of Appeal, Lord Justice Buxton confirmed that, following Leonard Cheshire, a private care home, when accommodating the appellants, was not performing the functions of a public authority under the HRA 1998, s 6(3)(b). The House of Lords, in a 3-2 majority decision, confirmed that the care home was not a functional public authority for the purposes of the HRA 1998. Lord Scott (in the majority) summarised as follows at paragraph 26:

'Southern Cross is a company carrying on a socially useful business for profit. It is neither a charity nor a philanthropist. It enters into private law contracts with the residents in its care homes and with the local authorities with whom it does business. It receives [...], enjoys no special statutory powers, and is at liberty to accept or reject residents as it chooses (subject, of course, to anti- discrimination legislation which affects everyone who offers a service to the public) and to charge whatever fees in its commercial judgment it thinks suitable. It is operating in a commercial market with commercial competitors.'

However, he stated at paragraph 28:

'The position might be different if the managers of privately owned care homes enjoyed special statutory powers over residents entitling them to restrain them or to discipline them in some way or to confine them to their rooms or to the care home premises.'

Answer

no public funding

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carrying on a socially useful business for profit. It is neither a charity nor a philanthropist. It enters into private law contracts with the residents in its care homes and with the local authorities with whom it does business. It receives no public funding, enjoys no special statutory powers, and is at liberty to accept or reject residents as it chooses (subject, of course, to anti- discrimination legislation which affects everyone who of

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Question

The most important recent case dealing with the concept of what constitutes the performance of a public function is YL v Birmingham City Council [2007] UKHL 27. This case involved the provision of care and accommodation in privately run care homes for the elderly. In the Court of Appeal, Lord Justice Buxton confirmed that, following Leonard Cheshire, a private care home, when accommodating the appellants, was not performing the functions of a public authority under the HRA 1998, s 6(3)(b). The House of Lords, in a 3-2 majority decision, confirmed that the care home was not a functional public authority for the purposes of the HRA 1998. Lord Scott (in the majority) summarised as follows at paragraph 26:

'Southern Cross is a company carrying on a socially useful business for profit. It is neither a charity nor a philanthropist. It enters into private law contracts with the residents in its care homes and with the local authorities with whom it does business. It receives no public funding, enjoys no [...], and is at liberty to accept or reject residents as it chooses (subject, of course, to anti- discrimination legislation which affects everyone who offers a service to the public) and to charge whatever fees in its commercial judgment it thinks suitable. It is operating in a commercial market with commercial competitors.'

However, he stated at paragraph 28:

'The position might be different if the managers of privately owned care homes enjoyed special statutory powers over residents entitling them to restrain them or to discipline them in some way or to confine them to their rooms or to the care home premises.'

Answer

special statutory powers

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l business for profit. It is neither a charity nor a philanthropist. It enters into private law contracts with the residents in its care homes and with the local authorities with whom it does business. It receives no public funding, enjoys no special statutory powers, and is at liberty to accept or reject residents as it chooses (subject, of course, to anti- discrimination legislation which affects everyone who offers a service to the public) and to

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Question

The most important recent case dealing with the concept of what constitutes the performance of a public function is YL v Birmingham City Council [2007] UKHL 27. This case involved the provision of care and accommodation in privately run care homes for the elderly. In the Court of Appeal, Lord Justice Buxton confirmed that, following Leonard Cheshire, a private care home, when accommodating the appellants, was not performing the functions of a public authority under the HRA 1998, s 6(3)(b). The House of Lords, in a 3-2 majority decision, confirmed that the care home was not a functional public authority for the purposes of the HRA 1998. Lord Scott (in the majority) summarised as follows at paragraph 26:

'Southern Cross is a company carrying on a socially useful business for profit. It is neither a charity nor a philanthropist. It enters into private law contracts with the residents in its care homes and with the local authorities with whom it does business. It receives no public funding, enjoys no special statutory powers, and is [...] (subject, of course, to anti- discrimination legislation which affects everyone who offers a service to the public) and to charge whatever fees in its commercial judgment it thinks suitable. It is operating in a commercial market with commercial competitors.'

However, he stated at paragraph 28:

'The position might be different if the managers of privately owned care homes enjoyed special statutory powers over residents entitling them to restrain them or to discipline them in some way or to confine them to their rooms or to the care home premises.'

Answer

at liberty to accept or reject residents as it chooses

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her a charity nor a philanthropist. It enters into private law contracts with the residents in its care homes and with the local authorities with whom it does business. It receives no public funding, enjoys no special statutory powers, and is at liberty to accept or reject residents as it chooses (subject, of course, to anti- discrimination legislation which affects everyone who offers a service to the public) and to charge whatever fees in its commercial judgment it thinks suita

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Question

The most important recent case dealing with the concept of what constitutes the performance of a public function is YL v Birmingham City Council [2007] UKHL 27. This case involved the provision of care and accommodation in privately run care homes for the elderly. In the Court of Appeal, Lord Justice Buxton confirmed that, following Leonard Cheshire, a private care home, when accommodating the appellants, was not performing the functions of a public authority under the HRA 1998, s 6(3)(b). The House of Lords, in a 3-2 majority decision, confirmed that the care home was not a functional public authority for the purposes of the HRA 1998. Lord Scott (in the majority) summarised as follows at paragraph 26:

'Southern Cross is a company carrying on a socially useful business for profit. It is neither a charity nor a philanthropist. It enters into private law contracts with the residents in its care homes and with the local authorities with whom it does business. It receives no public funding, enjoys no special statutory powers, and is at liberty to accept or reject residents as it chooses (subject, of course, to anti- discrimination legislation which affects everyone who offers a service to the public) and to [...]. It is operating in a commercial market with commercial competitors.'

However, he stated at paragraph 28:

'The position might be different if the managers of privately owned care homes enjoyed special statutory powers over residents entitling them to restrain them or to discipline them in some way or to confine them to their rooms or to the care home premises.'

Answer

charge whatever fees in its commercial judgment it thinks suitable

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es no public funding, enjoys no special statutory powers, and is at liberty to accept or reject residents as it chooses (subject, of course, to anti- discrimination legislation which affects everyone who offers a service to the public) and to charge whatever fees in its commercial judgment it thinks suitable. It is operating in a commercial market with commercial competitors.' However, he stated at paragraph 28: 'The position might be different if the manage

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Question

The most important recent case dealing with the concept of what constitutes the performance of a public function is YL v Birmingham City Council [2007] UKHL 27. This case involved the provision of care and accommodation in privately run care homes for the elderly. In the Court of Appeal, Lord Justice Buxton confirmed that, following Leonard Cheshire, a private care home, when accommodating the appellants, was not performing the functions of a public authority under the HRA 1998, s 6(3)(b). The House of Lords, in a 3-2 majority decision, confirmed that the care home was not a functional public authority for the purposes of the HRA 1998. Lord Scott (in the majority) summarised as follows at paragraph 26:

'Southern Cross is a company carrying on a socially useful business for profit. It is neither a charity nor a philanthropist. It enters into private law contracts with the residents in its care homes and with the local authorities with whom it does business. It receives no public funding, enjoys no special statutory powers, and is at liberty to accept or reject residents as it chooses (subject, of course, to anti- discrimination legislation which affects everyone who offers a service to the public) and to charge whatever fees in its commercial judgment it thinks suitable. It is operating in a commercial market with commercial competitors.'

However, he stated at paragraph 28:

'The position might be different if [...].'

Answer

the managers of privately owned care homes enjoyed special statutory powers over residents entitling them to restrain them or to discipline them in some way or to confine them to their rooms or to the care home premises

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charge whatever fees in its commercial judgment it thinks suitable. It is operating in a commercial market with commercial competitors.' However, he stated at paragraph 28: 'The position might be different if the managers of privately owned care homes enjoyed special statutory powers over residents entitling them to restrain them or to discipline them in some way or to confine them to their rooms or to the care home premises.' <body><html>

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A less restrictive line was taken by the Court of Appeal in the subsequent case of [ case ], where the court determined that the defendant housing association, which was a registered social landlord, was liable under the HRA 1998 (specifically the ECHR, art 8) in respect of their action in terminating the claimant's tenancy. In this case, the Court of Appeal appears to have clarified the law further in respect of hybrid authorities. It stated that if any of the functions that a body performs are public, it will be seen as a hybrid public authority. However, a final very important further proviso applied before liability under the HRA 1998, s 6(1) would apply, namely the nature of the action which the body is carrying out at the relevant time. Here, it stated that the court should ask whether the specific act undertaken by the authority is nevertheless private in nature? If it is, the defendant will be able to rely on the HRA 1998, s 6(5) and will not be subject to liability under the HRA 1998 in relation to this action. However, if the action is considered public in nature, the body will be potentially liable.

Answer

R (Weaver) v London and Quadrant Housing Trust

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A less restrictive line was taken by the Court of Appeal in the subsequent case of R (Weaver) v London and Quadrant Housing Trust, where the court determined that the defendant housing association, which was a registered social landlord, was liable under the HRA 1998 (specifically the ECHR, art 8) in respect of

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Question

A less restrictive line was taken by the Court of Appeal in the subsequent case of R (Weaver) v London and Quadrant Housing Trust, where the court determined that the defendant housing association, which was a registered social landlord, was liable under the HRA 1998 (specifically the ECHR, art 8) in respect of their action in terminating the claimant's tenancy. In this case, the Court of Appeal appears to have clarified the law further in respect of hybrid authorities. It stated that if [...]. However, a final very important further proviso applied before liability under the HRA 1998, s 6(1) would apply, namely the nature of the action which the body is carrying out at the relevant time. Here, it stated that the court should ask whether the specific act undertaken by the authority is nevertheless private in nature? If it is, the defendant will be able to rely on the HRA 1998, s 6(5) and will not be subject to liability under the HRA 1998 in relation to this action. However, if the action is considered public in nature, the body will be potentially liable.

Answer

any of the functions that a body performs are public, it will be seen as a hybrid public authority

status	not learned	measured difficulty	37% [default]	last interval [days]
repetition number in this series	0	memorised on		scheduled repetition
scheduled repetition interval		last repetition or drill

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the HRA 1998 (specifically the ECHR, art 8) in respect of their action in terminating the claimant's tenancy. In this case, the Court of Appeal appears to have clarified the law further in respect of hybrid authorities. It stated that if any of the functions that a body performs are public, it will be seen as a hybrid public authority. However, a final very important further proviso applied before liability under the HRA 1998, s 6(1) would apply, namely the nature of the action which the body is carrying out at the

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Flashcard 1373541109004

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Question

If any of the functions that a body performs are public, it will be seen as a hybrid public authority.

Answer

R (Weaver) v London and Quadrant Housing Trust

status	not learned	measured difficulty	37% [default]	last interval [days]
repetition number in this series	0	memorised on		scheduled repetition
scheduled repetition interval		last repetition or drill

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Flashcard 1373542944012

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Question

A less restrictive line was taken by the Court of Appeal in the subsequent case of R (Weaver) v London and Quadrant Housing Trust, where the court determined that the defendant housing association, which was a registered social landlord, was liable under the HRA 1998 (specifically the ECHR, art 8) in respect of their action in terminating the claimant's tenancy. In this case, the Court of Appeal appears to have clarified the law further in respect of hybrid authorities. It stated that if any of the functions that a body performs are public, it will be seen as a hybrid public authority. However, a final very important further proviso applied before liability under the HRA 1998, s 6(1) would apply, namely the nature of the action which the body is carrying out at the relevant time. Here, it stated that the court should ask whether [...]? If it is, the defendant will be able to rely on the HRA 1998, s 6(5) and will not be subject to liability under the HRA 1998 in relation to this action. However, if the action is considered public in nature, the body will be potentially liable.

Answer

the specific act undertaken by the authority is nevertheless private in nature

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repetition number in this series	0	memorised on		scheduled repetition
scheduled repetition interval		last repetition or drill

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, a final very important further proviso applied before liability under the HRA 1998, s 6(1) would apply, namely the nature of the action which the body is carrying out at the relevant time. Here, it stated that the court should ask whether the specific act undertaken by the authority is nevertheless private in nature? If it is, the defendant will be able to rely on the HRA 1998, s 6(5) and will not be subject to liability under the HRA 1998 in relation to this action. However, if the action is con

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Flashcard 1373543992588

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Question

The doctrine of the margin of appreciation used by the Strasbourg court to interpret ECHR rights is not strictly applicable in the domestic context. In [ case ], the House of Lords considered the role of the margin of appreciation in UK domestic law. Lord Hope stated:

'… The doctrine of the "margin of appreciation" is a familiar part of the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights … By conceding a margin of appreciation to each national system, the Court has recognised that the Convention, as a living system, does not need to be applied uniformly by all states but may vary in its application according to local needs and conditions. This technique is not available to the national courts when they are considering Convention issues arising within their own countries. But in the hands of national courts also the Convention should be seen as an expression of fundamental principles rather than a set of mere rules. Questions which the courts

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